Asian Immigration into the United States after 1877

The first wave of Asian immigration to the United States started with the Chinese. They provided low-cost labor for plantations in Hawaii, California, and in building railroads. However, they also attracted resentment from the whites, leading to the signing of the Chinese exclusion act. The low reduced the flow from China to a trickle. With the flow of immigration from China ebbing out, the next wave of immigration came from Japan. Like the Chinese, they provided low-cost labor for agriculture, mining, and fisheries industries. They also faced discrimination and stereotypes in the form of the “yellow peril.” The next large group was Koreans, who arrived first after the Japanese takeover of Korea and after the Korean War. Filipinos also immigrated in large numbers before the Second World War. Things, however, changed after the war where the government passed laws that accommodated immigration from Asia. In particular, the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965 removed quotas, and for the first time, Asians could move in large numbers to America without hindrance. Today, Asia is the single largest source of new immigrants in America. 

Chinese immigration 

The Chinese were the first Asian immigrants to arrive in the United States in large numbers in the middle of the 19 th century. Most of the immigrants were from the Chinese province of Guangdong. Unlike Chinese from other regions, those from Guangdong had maritime traditions, so it was easier for them to move overseas. However, the main push factor was violent conflicts such as the Red Turbans uprising of 1854-1964 and the Taiping rebellion of 1850-1964. Those two rebellions led to the death of at least 20 million Chinese. Another push factor was the economic dislocation caused by the British in their opium wars with the Qing government. After the government lost both wars, it had to pay reparations; hence, it raised taxes on farmers 1 . Those who could not pay the taxes lost their lands. On the face of those devastations caused by internal and external factors, immigration from China appeared appealing for most people in Guangdong. 

The turning point for Chinese immigration was the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in 1848. When the news reached China, the most landless peasants who had lost their lands and entrepreneurs saw an opportunity to move to California and start all over again. The first immigrants were men who hoped to make money and then move back to China. The immigrants bought tickets from brokers with the promise to recoup the money from earnings in America. On reaching America, most immigrants, with a few exceptions, did not achieve the famed success they sought. Consequently, most Chinese immigrants found themselves as outcasts in the harsh frontier west. Without good alternatives, they were willing to take up any jobs, and that presented real competition to whites. 

Chinese exclusion 

The competition the Chinese brought for jobs led to measures to exclude them. California introduced a tax for miners not wishing to become citizens. The goal was to exclude the Chinese. The law did not give the Chinese a choice because of the Naturalization Act of 1790 excluded nonwhites from becoming citizens 2 . In a step to discourage further immigration, America passed another law that fined the owners of ships $50 for any passenger brought to America but ineligible for citizenship. 

Despite the critical role Chinese played in laying railroads, they faced discrimination and mistreatment. They could not progress in work or surpass whites. They worked under dangerous conditions, especially when handling explosives to blast off rock outcrops located along the railroad routes. Many died when placing dynamites in the rocks. The rough weather conditions, and especially during winter, led to many deaths. 

The Chinese also immigrated and settled in Hawaii, where they suffered harassment as well. The working conditions in Hawaii plantation were not right. Single men lived in small rooms, and even married men did not live well with their families either 3 . Working started early in the morning and ended at night. Supervisors, who often physically abused the workers, forbade Chinese from talking during work. 

The working conditions were, but most persevered because things in China were not good either. Due to the contract system, most Chinese lived in one place and only. Married men brought their wives to the plantation. Nevertheless, despite the challenges, the population of Chinese Americans continued to increase. Those who completed their contract period and those in mining and railroad moved to urban centers where they established china towns. In the cities of the west coast, such as San Francisco, the population of Chinese increased markedly. The emergence of Chinatowns was in response to discrimination and segregation. Within the China towns, Chinese American could continue to live according to their culture. With time, the Chinese started companies that provided essential services such as schools, funerals, loans, census, settling disputes, and acting as unofficial ambassadors for the Chinese Qing government 4 . Chinatown also provided jobs for the local communities, so they did not have to contend with segregation and discrimination. 

Despite efforts to achieve self-reliance, the Chinese continued to work in factories on the west coast. However, because they were willing to work for less, friction with the whites was inevitable. The problem led to several incidents in which white mobs attacked and killed Chinese in their Chinatowns. In the mid-1880s, some of these incidents led to the eviction of Chinese in Rock Springs, Wyoming. Eviction also took place in Tacoma and Seattle. The most basic anti-Chinese law during this period was the Chinese exclusion act, which effectively stopped immigration from China. 

Chinese immigration and railroads 

The Chinese played a critical role in building the railroads. The first Chinese recruited for this was in 1865 when white workers for the Central Pacific Railroad threatened to go on strike over wages. Central Pacific Railroad was laying the tracks to connect the eastern half of the country to the west. In the face of a threat of a possible work stoppage, the management hired Chinese workers despite initial fears that they were delicate and unsuitable for the tough work of laying tracks 5 . However, with time, it became apparent that they were suitable for the work, or as good as their white counterparts. They were also willing to take less pay. From that point, the Central Pacific Railroad started to recruit the Chinese actively and even sent recruiters to China. Within two years, the company had 12, 000 workers, accounting for 90 percent of the total workforce. 

Although Hawaii was not part of the United States, American companies had large sugar plantations on the island. The presence of those companies and their outsized role in the economy made the island into an economic colony of the USA. As the Central Pacific Island, the agriculture companies in the island hired Chinese labor. An estimated 300,000 Chinese immigrated to the island between 1850 and 1920. Before 1900, most arrived on the island via the contract labor system where immigrants were given a free pass in exchange for working for a certain number of years and some pay. This model was similar to indentured servitude. 

Japanese immigration 

The exclusion of the Chinese was largely successful such that by 1882, immigration had reduced to negligible levels. However, the demand for cheap labor was high in the United States. The opportunity opened up a route for other Asians and particularly the Japanese to immigrate. The Japanese, therefore, formed the next largest of Asian immigration into the United States. 

Before Perry arrived in Tokyo with his fleet and bombarded the harbor to force Japan to open up to the outside world in 1853, Japan was a closed society. However, even with the incident, the government did not allow its citizens to emigrate or move abroad. Nevertheless, in 1885, the government started to allow immigration, but under strict conditions. The planters in the plantation of Hawaii took the opportunity to take Japanese under three-year work contracts. Therefore, from 1894 to 1908, 125,000 Japanese entered America 6 . The planters hoped to use the Japanese to widen their pool of labor, and in doing so, undermine the formation of unions and strikes. The use of the Japanese in Hawaii labor increased after the government annexed the island. The annexation meant that Chinese exclusion extended to the island. 

Like the Chinese, the Japanese immigrated to escape the economic hardships at home. Following the collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the new Meijji embarked on a path of economic reform and modernization. One of the reforms was the introduction of a land tax system. Under the new system, the government taxed farmers, for on the size of their crop and lands itself. The new system did not consider crop failures. Thus, during periods of crop failures, farmers could not pay taxes, and the result was the loss of their land 7 . In the 1880s, an estimated 367,000 and a substantial number of these farmers chose to move abroad instead of becoming tenant farmers. 

The flow of the Japanese into America started in the early 1890s, and the process accelerated after the annexation of Hawaii by the United States. The annexation voided existing contracts tying Japanese to the island. With the unexpected freedom, most Japanese in Hawaii decided to move to mainland America. Once on the mainland, a majority sought employment in agriculture, where the local white farmers valued their expertise in farming and agriculture in general. Their cost of labor was lower compared to that of whites and mainly the Irish. The Japanese also worked in the fishing industry, mines, logging, and in service industries. Also, like the Chinese, faced discrimination, leading to the establishment of Japan towns and many Japanese became business owners in those enclaves. The Japanese government sought to address some of the problems faced by Japanese society in America by encouraging women to emigrate as well. Men abroad would pair with women at home by exchanging pictures. 

Yellow peril 

Although Americans saw Asians, including the Japanese as an inferior society, that changed quickly after the Japanese fought and defeated Russia and China in quick succession. With western technology, the new Japanese government transformed the economy from pre-modern to modern, industrialized market economy in less than four decades. In America, the rise of Japan attracted fear rather than respect. However, the chaos of those two led to a massive influx of Japanese and Koreans caught in the war, leading to concerns about the “Yellow Peril.” White Americans felt under threat. Novels with devious Asian protagonists started to emerge 8 . The authors depicted the protagonists as agents seeking to control America for Asian rulers. Asia peril stereotype applied to all Asians. Finally, the immigration from Japan reduced significantly following secret exchanges between Japan and America known as the Gentleman’s Agreement. Also, in 1913, California passed a law known as the alien Land Law that limited Japanese from owning land. 

Other immigrants from Asia 

Other Asians followed the pattern of Chinese and Japanese in immigration. The emigration of Koreans started after Japan took control of Korea. In the Philippines, emigration started after America took over the Philippines after defeating the Spanish. 9 The government sponsored several hundred Philippine students to study in America and returned after graduation. The students inspired some non-sponsored Filipinos to immigrate on their own. American military recruited the Filipinos to work in the navy as stewards and mess hall attendants. By 1930, more than 25,000 Filipinos worked in the navy. Other Filipinos immigrated into California to work in farms and the fishing industry in Alaska. Like the Japanese and Chinese before them, they provided cheap labor, but they did not tend to live in segregated communities. 

As the number of immigrants from the Philippines increased, resistance started to emerge in the 1920s. The economic problems following the great depression accelerated the process. In 1934, Congress passed the Philippine Independence Act, which promised the Filipinos independence within ten years. The law also led to the designation of the Philippines as aliens and the government set quota of fifty Filipinos per year. However, with the passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the government shut down all immigration from Asia until the Second World War. 

Asian immigration after the Second World War 

After the Second World War, things changed. First, the contribution of Asian American to the war effort during the Second World War attracted admiration. The government granted Asian American citizens. The government removed previous restrictions. Also, the result of the Holocaust, which was rooted in racial discrimination, horrified American government, encouraging the government to address racial and ethnic profiling. The government allowed women to enter as non-quota immigrants and miscegenation laws, once popular with the people, started to fall out of favor. The cold far pushed the government to accommodate Asian countries in its war against communism 10 . The Korean War triggered a massive influx of people from the Korean peninsula. Another development during this period was the civil rights movement led by Martin Luther King Jr. The movement forced the government to abandon the race, inspired laws to accommodate more people. Therefore, in 1965, Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1965, which abolished the national origins quota system, and quotas for immigrants from Asia jumped from 100 to 20,000 immigrants per year. Today, Asia is the leading source of immigrants in America. 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, modern immigration law in America has abolished quotas in preference of qualifications and skills. Asians, as among the most educated people in fields such as STEM, have benefited most from these laws. The immigrants come from various countries such as India, Pakistan, China, and other nationalities from the same regions. The Vietnam War led to a massive surge in immigration from displaced persons or under humanitarian grounds. Another source of immigrants in America is those displaced by war and terrorism in West Asia. 

Bibliography 

Bhachu, Parminder. "Immigration and Entrepreneurship." 2017. doi:10.4324/9780203789056. 

Daniels, Roger. Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 . Washington: University of Washington Press, 2011. 

Hirota, H. "The Moment of Transition: State Officials, the Federal Government, and the Formation of American Immigration Policy." Journal of American History 99, no. 4 (2013): 1092-108. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas643. 

Journell, Wayne. "Setting Out the (Un) Welcome Mat: A Portrayal of Immigration in State Standards for American History." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (2009): 160-68. doi:10.3200/tsss.100.4.160-168. 

Spickard, Paul. Almost All Aliens: Immigration, Race, and Colonialism in American History and Identity . New York: Routledge, 2009. 

Srinivasan, Priya. "The Nautch Women Dancers of the 1880s: Corporeality, US Orientalism, and Anti-Asian Immigration Laws." Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 19, no. 1 (2009): 3-22. doi:10.1080/07407700802655232. 

Young, Julia G. "Making America 1920 Again? Nativism and US Immigration, past and Present." Journal on Migration and Human Security 5, no. 1 (2017): 217-35. doi:10.1177/233150241700500111. 

1 Bhachu, Parminder. "Immigration and Entrepreneurship." 2017. doi:10.4324/9780203789056.

2 Hirota, H. "The Moment of Transition: State Officials, the Federal Government, and the Formation of American Immigration Policy." Journal of American History 99, no. 4 (2013): 1092-108. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas643.

3 Daniels, Roger. Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850. Washington: University of Washington Press, 2011.

4 Journell, Wayne. "Setting Out the (Un) Welcome Mat: A Portrayal of Immigration in State Standards for American History." The Social Studies 100, no. 4 (2009): 160-68. doi:10.3200/tsss.100.4.160-168.

5 Spickard, Paul. Almost All Aliens: Immigration, Race, and Colonialism in American History and Identity. New York: Routledge, 2009.

6 Srinivasan, Priya. "The Nautch Women Dancers of the 1880s: Corporeality, US Orientalism, and Anti-Asian Immigration Laws." Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 19, no. 1 (2009): 3-22. doi:10.1080/07407700802655232

7 Young, Julia G. "Making America 1920 Again? Nativism and US Immigration, past and Present." Journal on Migration and Human Security 5, no. 1 (2017): 217-35. doi:10.1177/233150241700500111.

8 Srinivasan, Priya. "The Nautch Women Dancers of the 1880s: Corporeality, US Orientalism, and Anti-Asian Immigration Laws." Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 19, no. 1 (2009): 3-22. doi:10.1080/07407700802655232

9 Young, Julia G. "Making America 1920 Again? Nativism and US Immigration, past and Present." Journal on Migration and Human Security 5, no. 1 (2017): 217-35. doi:10.1177/233150241700500111.

10 Srinivasan, Priya. "The Nautch Women Dancers of the 1880s: Corporeality, US Orientalism, and Anti-Asian Immigration Laws." Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 19, no. 1 (2009): 3-22. doi:10.1080/07407700802655232