The meaning of bilingualism is subjective, and depends on who gets to answer the question when asked. There is no strict definition to what constitutes a bilingual. On one hand, bilingualism might be defined as minimal proficiency in two languages. On the other hand, only individuals highly proficient in two languages could qualify as bilinguals ( Verhagen et al., 2017) . Note the subjectivity or ambiguity in what constitutes minimal or maximum proficiency (Nikoladis & Montanari, 2016). Furthermore, the definition of bilingualism might not be on the basis of familiarity or proficiency in any language but simply imply the ability to communicate and converse; orally or in writing (bi-literate). These definitions of bilingualism are in contrast with the definition provided in the classroom: bilingualism is the simultaneous acquisition of two or more languages beginning in infancy of before the age of two years ( Silva-Corvalán, 2018) . For instance, I am proficient in four languages. I can confidently converse (without an impeding accent) in three of them, bi-literate in two, cannot write in the other two, and when communicated to in the last one, I can understand everything but my responses will have an accent. It is, therefore, confusing to choose which criteria to define my bilingualism. All I know is that I am bilingual and potentially plurilingual.
The ambiguity in bilingualism is not a bad thing however. Bilingualism is subjective, and might also be the result of growing up or living in an environment that needed communication in two languages. Simultaneous bilingualism is more common today in urban environments where membership and active participation in the community and social groups would require minimum proficiency in at least two languages. This, however, does not explain how bilingualism occur. For instance, when bilinguals confuse the two languages and mix sentences and words, is it accidental or intentional? Answering the question requires a look into the theories of bilingualism.
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There are two mutually exclusive theories that attempt to explain bilingual development. The unitary system hypothesis, for instance, posits that bilingual children create one lexicon and grammar (Dewi, 2017). Therefore, when they mix or confuse words and phrases, it would be the expected behavior. The evidence for the unitary system hypothesis is that children and learners will often know or remember the name of an item in one language only. On the other hand, the separate systems hypothesis posits that for every language, the learner constructs a new lexicon and grammar (Schier et al., 2019). Unlike the unitary systems hypothesis, however, testing the separate systems hypothesis requires looking into how language learners and users confuse the word order. What the two theories fail to explain, however, is how bilingualism emerge. Furthermore, the theories fail to explain why learning a new language is relatively easier in children than in adults. Understanding these questions leads to understanding the primary function of language, besides communication: cultural transmission.
When children learn language, they are accepting both the lexicon and grammar as well as social structures and culture. Through language, children learn about the culture they were born into. Their daily interactions, with the family, friends, school, and at the playground, are transmissions of cultural beliefs. For instance, it a child makes a mistake, at home or in class, it is through language that they get corrected. It is also through language that they get to communicate their beliefs. Beliefs are an essential part of personal identity formation and communication. Furthermore, it is through language that the children develop and express their sense of identity and connection to the world around them.
Cultural transmission is not independent, however. For individuals or children living in environments where cultural interactions are common, conflicting beliefs will be passed on. This is common in today’s modern age where a majority of the population lives in urban environment and every culture interacts in unpredictable ways through the internet and social media. Historically, bilingualism was defined to be synonymous to biculturalism. For instance, a child born to an Indian family but lives in America will be identified as an Indian, referring to both their cultural and lingual identities. However, cultural interactions are blurring these lines. A child born to both Chinese and English parents but grew up in America would reflect all the cultures. However, they would not qualify as bilingual in the strictest sense, unless they are proficient in at least two languages. Note how seamless the ambiguity of bilingualism integrates to form different arguments and different lines of discourse.
References
Dewi, P. (2017). UNITARY SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS AND DUAL SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. Humanitatis: Journal of Language and Literature , 4 (1), 137-146.
Nicoladis, E., & Montanari, S. (Eds.). (2016). Bilingualism across the lifespan: Factors moderating language proficiency . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
Schier, L. A., Hyde, K. M., & Spector, A. C. (2019). Conditioned taste aversion versus avoidance: A re-examination of the separate processes hypothesis. Plos one , 14 (6), e0217458.
Silva-Corvalán, C. (2018). Simultaneous bilingualism: Early developments, incomplete later outcomes?. International Journal of Bilingualism , 22 (5), 497-512.
Verhagen, J., Grassmann, S., & Küntay, A. C. (2017). Monolingual and bilingual children’s resolution of referential conflicts: Effects of bilingualism and relative language proficiency. Cognitive Development , 41 , 10-18.
