Chapter 1
According to the text, anything that has life from the bacteria found in lakes to neurons in the brain is created in a way that, they have to adapt to their surrounding without any struggle. All the aforementioned is made possible by the chemical rules (Stanley, 1976). Notably, one of the rules is that, phosphorus is a good element for manufacturing DNA, while arsenic is not. The genesis of nucleic acids and phosphorus is found in Mono Lake as captured in the text. McFarland’s believe is found in an experiment conducted by Felisa Wolfe-Simon (McFrarland, 2016). She came up with an experiment that involved growing up bacteria in the lab, which she has picked from Mono Lake mud. Every day, she would minimize the levels of phosphate, while ensuring that arsenic was around it. This was simply meant to ensure that, the bacteria were not only putting up with arsenic, but were indeed consuming it. On a daily basis without fail, she visited the lab and the bacteria kept growing (Jeffrey, 2008).
Wolfe-Simon withdrew phosphate basing her decision on the period table pattern. Notably, on the periodic table, arsenic (A) is beneath phosphorus (P). Each column on periodic table contains chemicals with same electron arrangement. Phosphorus is needed in production of all cell membranes and DNA (McFrarland, 2016). In that sense, whenever phosphate was withdrawn, the bacteria would automatically go for arsenate considering it is the next best thing within the surrounding. To prove this, scientists made a superconductor using iron, phosphorus, oxygen and lanthanum. They decided to replace phosphorus with arsenic, and it worked even better (Knodle, Agarwal & Brown, 2012). However, while the two can serve as substitutes in superconductors, the same cannot be said in DNA formation. In all organisms, phosphorus is an essential for life, while arsenic is associated with death.
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Therefore, the belief held by McFarland can be concluded that, although the two chemicals are in the same category in the periodic table, their roles are completely different. If an individual consumes excess arsenic, they are likely to experience severe headache, and they may end up in a coma and in some cases even die. In contrast, phosphate in the body will be compatible with other molecules, while arsenate will behave differently (Vinther & Nielsen, 2005). When used by the body, arsenic is toxic, while phosphate sends life to all body cells. In overall, phosphate bonds are long lasting and no other element is useful to life, more than phosphorus. In that regard, it is appropriate to conclude and agree with McFarland’s belief that, phosphorus is needed to make nucleic acids and why arsenic could not be a substitute for phosphorus in nucleic acids. DNA molecules will thrive in the presence of phosphorus, but react negatively in arsenic (Zhuravlev & Wood, 2018).
Chapter 9
During the Cambrian period, numerous changes may have led to the "explosion" of species. According to the text, many scientists have explained a wide range of things that probably caused the Cambrian explosion. All events leading to the explosion are related to oxygen (McFrarland, 2016). The events and changes that led to explosion of species in the Cambrian have attracted much debate. McFarland has explained numerous theories in the text to inform the readers about the explosion. Changes within the environment created a surrounding viable for animal life to take place. According to the text, some of the changes include the increased calcium in the ocean and rising levels of the atmospheric pressure. According to McFarland, scientists have come up with all manners of explanations, but the existence of lagoons was indeed a viable ground for different creatures to co-exist. Indeed, some theories support the fact that, ecological formations among species, such as the changes in food web and competition for few resources were established to promote the co-evolution of species (Putnam et al. 2007).
Notably, the experimentation of shapes on earth is one of the changes that led to the Cambrian explosion. The explanation given for this is that, it reached a point that evolution decided to try new outfits. The new shapes emanated from the development of the oxygenated molecules (McFrarland, 2016). As growth was being influenced by the hormones, cells in various organisms would grow into different shapes, some would turn into twists, and others would grow straight. Following the formation of different shapes, some cells assumed different shapes and the explosion occurred (Brush, 1987).
From a personal perspective, I think the changes that preceded the explosion may have failed to lead to a dramatic increase in life during this time. From an evolution perspective, it is obvious that, whenever any explosion takes place, new and efficient forms of species take the advantage and eat up all the food. However, when the Cambrian explosion took place, paleontologists identified sections of bodies that got extinct, simply because the conditions did not favor them. They were unable to compete. If the species got food and oxygen, they would have survived. In that sense, the changes did not lead up to dramatic increase in life (Charles, 2006).
Question 3
In his article, Miller (2014) admits that, Cambrian explosion undoubtedly took place. However, this geological process has been subject to extensive scientific study, debates and discussions and even today, the talk continue. In the same vein, evolution critics have posed many questions. One of their major concerns is that, the transitions between major invertebrate groups (phyla), are missing, and their appearance in fossil documentation is a clear indication that evolutionary explanations are invalid. In the article, Miller has put across major questions and observations that give the readers a different view of the Cambrian explosion. For instance, through the lenses of John Morris, Miller opines that, if indeed evolution was accurate, the first life was just simple, and only became complex over time (Miller, 2014). In contrast, the Cambrian explosion has shown life complexities from the beginning; thus, evolution is given a black eye. At the same time, through the discovery of Stephen Meyer, Miller observes that, the assertion that the fauna during the Cambrian period occurred in a geologically sudden manner clearly indicates the absence of clear transitional intermediates that connected the complex Cambrian animals with the simpler living creatures found in lower strata (Sablok, 2019). Indeed, there is another feature discussed in the article that raises questions on Cambrian explosion. Notably, the major body formations emanating from the Cambrian period show serious morphological isolations from each other. The body plans of the animals as captured in the fossil records differ with others associated with the same geologic time or history (Reiss, 2009).
I agree with the observations made by creation experts that, the Cambrian explosion to some extent supports the creation theory, but puts into doubt the evolution theory. Based on observations made by experts in the field of creation, there lacks a single fossil undergoing evolution, because for over 50 million years, the fossils have remained the same way without any mutation sign (Budd, 2013). In that sense, the teachings by Christians from a biblical perspective is supported by the Cambrian theory that major groups such as fauna, animals and phyla were created by God and appeared suddenly. Just as Christians believe that God created everything and different creations came up suddenly in different days, the Cambrian explosion to some extent supports it as various animals and plants came up all at once (Barnes & Brownell, 2018). There are some similarities between Christian worldview and the Cambrian explosion. Notably, from a biblical perspective, plants and animals, and anything else that has life came into existence suddenly. They did not evolve since in Genesis 1:27, God admits he created them. At the same time, the Cambrian explosion does not have accounts of transitional fossils. There is no record showing that fossils evolved from one form to the other. In the entire period of 50million years, the fossils did not undergo any changes or mutations. All the fauna, animals and phyla appeared suddenly, just as what happened with creation as recorded in the Bible.
References
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