The following research looks into a topic of great concern to the modern US society which is at risk children between the age of 10 and 18 years old. The term “at-risk” is a common phrase used to refer to children and youth due to their presenting issues as they grow up. The concept does not have a consistent definition but generally shows a stigmatization of particular groups of the community (Dobizl, 2002). There are numerous cases where the terminology is used vaguely to highlight the poor life outcomes that affect many children in the society. Others may argue that in one way or another all children face significant risk. However, others seek to emphasize that in numerous cases, some children in the community face higher risks due to the conditions they have had to encounter in their young lives (Dobizl, 2002).
The society identifies an ideal setting that would be favorable for child development such that it will result in positive and successful transition from childhood into adulthood. For the purpose of this research, this will be the integral notion of defining at-risk youth as one who is less likely to realize success during the transition process (Dobizl, 2002). Some of the successes in question may include academic achievement, job readiness, college enrollment, financial independence, and appropriate behavior by avoiding a life of crime. It is for this reason that the following research attempts to uncover signs that show the possibility of becoming at-risk and how these factors may cause adverse effects on the children.
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In the process of discovery, it is important to look at children particularly in the significant signs they display and the behavior shown while in school. Such factors are likely to provide insightful information on how they make children more prone to falling into this category (Dobizl, 2002). Some of the factors in life may include the occurrence of poverty in the family preventing development into a law-abiding citizen or healthy outcome in terms of avoiding drug consumption, or the effect divorce has on the behavior of a child among other issues. The following research will also identify the interventions that the federal, state, and local governments have undertaken to help at risk children. The primary concern will be the Amphitheater Public School District in Tuscon. One of the major practices of school-going children is engagement in sporting activities. It serves as a major distracter from the negative aspects associated with the living conditions. This research will show whether involvement in sports can act as an intervention to help children lessen the risks they face.
The issue is of particular importance as majority of those suffering will rarely receive the help they deserve. Therefore, the findings of this research will identify ways of providing assistance to alleviate this issue (Dobizl, 2002). As a future school counselor, these are the children I hope I can get to and make a difference in their lives. I think I will find information saying that any extra circular activities (school related) help any kids to perform better in school or at least show up more. I also think I will come across information about different predictors when the children are very young and even before they are born. I think we are going to find out that pretty much everything children are exposed to, especially through technology plays, a role in how they act, think, feel, their attitude etc.
Literature Review
Divorce in the family is a critical issue that affects the upbringing of the children. According to traditions of the American society, the ideal family is one that incorporates both the mother and father of the child. In the case where one considers the homosexual couples this means that a child requires at least two parents to achieve a stable life experience (Moon, 2011). In the US and majority of the developed countries, many of the children are growing up in single parent families. In this case, the child is likely to stay with the mother or father depending on the cause of the divorce (Moon, 2011). The occurrence may affect the child negatively as they begin to question why he or she does not have one of the parents around to care for him. During childhood interactions, as the children play they will usually imitate their parents to depict what is appropriate behavior (Moon, 2011). The child with a single parent may not be aware of the accepted actions of the missing parent resulting in the distortion of information. The effect of mass incarceration has been an equivalent to divorce. Children in majority of the minority groups are more likely to experience single parent families due to one of the parent being incarcerated. The effect results in stigmatization of the children and development of negative attitudes towards the society.
According to research by Moon (2011) divorce seems to have a negative effect towards the children. The study incorporates three hypothesis to identify the impact divorce has on the behavior of a child in regard to the attitudes of parents towards the marital status. Married parents out of a sample population of 118 reported more negative effects on the child as opposed to the divorced parents (Moon, 2011). The study goes further to identify that mothers and fathers whose parents remained married rated divorce as a negative influence to the child’s behavior as opposed to those who did not identify with the same. Additionally, parents who initiated divorce proceedings reported fewer negative influences on the child as opposed to those who did not initiate the divorce. In this regard, the occurrence of divorce on its own is perceived as a negative influence on the life of a child.
It is evident that low-income families have significant influence on the behavior of a child and the eventual outcome. It is less likely that the child from a low-income family will achieve successful transition into adulthood than that of a middle-class family. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) noted that household income affects the overall outcome of the children in the family. Children particularly those in the adolescent ages are more likely to experience adverse issues that prompt them from experiencing a successful transition into adulthood. For instance, occurrence of early pregnancy, engagement in gang activity or delinquent activity, and inability to complete college education is likely to affect children from poor families than those from the middle-income and high-income families. The environment of living in poverty and having to fight for the little that is available causes the development of rebellious behavior (Bartollas, & Schmalleger, 2018). An individual does not just decide to make it his or her life’s purpose to violate all the rules that have been set up by the relevant authorities. Instead, they learn such behavior from family members, parents, siblings, peers and the community at large. For this reason, the environment where a child is living will most likely influence juvenile behavior as it is the presented behavior among individuals in the society.
It is important to note that if the children are taught to behave in a manner that shows respect and adherence to the law then this would be the type of behavior that they imitate. Research shows that there is a relationship between criminal behavior among children from poorer households and the environmental setting where they grow up. The stability of a home in particular stands out as a signaling factor to causing children to become at risk of successful development (Farrington, Ttofi, & Piquero, 2016). Many of the children in poorer neighborhoods are forced to live without one of their parents due to the incarceration. In this case, there is significant instability in the home as the available parent may experience emotional distress and cannot appropriately meet the needs of the child (Farrington, Ttofi, & Piquero, 2016). The child may also experience the same feeling due to the absence of a parent. Such a case may result in the presentation of negative behavior of the child. Some of the prevalent issues may include skipping school, dropping-out for older teens, drug abuse, and early pregnancy (Farrington, Ttofi, & Piquero, 2016). This incidence increases the likelihood of a child becoming at risk.
Delinquency among children between the age of 10 and 18 has become a common phenomenon in the US society. More children, both male and female are engaging in criminal behavior at a tender age. As a result, majority of the children are unable to stop the behavior despite being incarcerated (Chambliss, 2011). Successful reintegration into the society is a difficult task to achieve. It is important that the young ex-convicts return to a home environment where criminal behavior and delinquency is strictly discouraged (Farrington, Ttofi, & Piquero, 2016). Another important factor is to separate the child from the negative influences that may increase the likelihood of participating in criminal behavior (Chambliss, 2011). This occurrence is not the case for the American society.
The released young offenders are sent back into a community filled with chaos and significant temptation to repeat the unwanted behavior (Farrington, Ttofi, & Piquero, 2016). Research by Barrett, Ju, Katsiyannis, and Zhang (2013) showed that the family delinquency and age of first offense was a significant predictor of repeat offending. In this regard, once a young teenager is released from juvenile detention, he or she should not be returned to a home where the family members are actively involved in the same negative behavior. The research shows additional predictors of repeat offending including drug use and severity of the first crime committed (Barrett, et al., 2013).
The behavior of a child is by far the most effective means by which social workers and other related individuals can use to predict the possibility of a child being at-risk. In this case, the children from a young age begin to portray significant signs that could assist counselors in identifying the risks and helps incorporate significant interventions for mitigating them (Chambliss, 2011). The occurrence of high school dropouts in North America remain high ranging from 15% to 26% in both Canada and the US. The study carried out by Fitzpatrick, Archambault, Janosz, and Pagani (2017) shows that working memory may contribute to the incidence of high school dropout from early childhood. Previous research by the authors showed that working memory is an integral component of cognitive control. In this case, a child’s preschool working memory may appropriately predict academic competence and classroom engagement in kindergarten (Fitzpatrick et al., 2015). Additionally, the same factor may be used to determine a child’s ability to maintain persistence towards long-term goal achievement. In this regard, the significant increase in the working memory of a child may reduce chances of high school drop out by 26%. The findings of the research are affirmed by previous studies conducted by Suh and colleagues (2007).
Another presenting behavioral sign showing the possibility of dropping out is truancy. In the modern society, numerous students are likely to participate in unexcused or illegitimate absence from school as a form of rebellion towards the authority (Rocque, Jennings, Piquero, Ozkan, and Farrington, 2016). A number of students who participate in such practices, the intention is to appear “cool” (Wimer et al., 2008). Peers who may have already dropped out of school or those who may already be engaging in gang activity may pressure others so as to include them in their social group (Rocque et al., 2016). In addition, disability may serve as a predictor of delinquent behavior among high school students. The study by Blake and colleagues (2016), attempts to determine the risk factors for adolescents’ involvement in bullying behavior across the continuum. It is evident that disability status was a major predictor for bullying. However, ethnic differences among students was found to determine victimization roles, but not for bullying. In this regard, the study suggests that Caucasian students were more likely to be vulnerable to bullying behavior or could take up dual roles as the bully or victims depending on the students they interacted with. Research also points out that a history of family violence, behavioral problems in childhood, and high risk adolescent behavior increased possibility of girls being victimized psychologically, physically, and/or sexually (Vezina et al., 2015).
Preliminary Findings
From the above research, it is evident that there are a wide range of factors that could help predict the possibility of children between the age of 10 and 18 being at risk. These factors may be categorized into psychological, physiological, and social factors. This classification system helps distinctively identify the appropriate interventions that may help the significant risk that the child faces. For instance, one of the psychological factors includes lack of cognitive control whereby the children cannot manage their impulses. Children who experience such lack of control may portray negative behavior such as poor engagement in the class, victimization of students, bullying, and participation in delinquent activities.
If the actions or activities of the child go unnoticed by the teacher or the caregiver, they may intensify and increase in frequency preventing the child from becoming a positive member of society once they transition into adulthood. Teachers and caregivers alike also have the responsibility of taking control of the environment of the child to prevent the development of undesirable behavior. For instance, history of family violence, family criminal history, drug abuse, and occurrence of divorce may have a negative impact on the child. The above research shows that the child learns from the environment (Sitkowski, 2008). Therefore, when the parents engage in any of the aforementioned behaviors it is likely that the child will react or act in a similar manner. Having multiple sexual partners is a common reaction to the experience of divorce.
Sport Activities
Athletics at the high school and university level has come to play a major role in the lives of children in the US. For numerous generations, the process of education has been identified closely with sporting activities. Sports culture is shown to have significant impact on the individual due to its association with academic culture on numerous levels (Sitkowski, 2008). For instance, while football may be identified for its rough style of play, it requires tactical knowledge to guarantee a team win. Despite the importance of individual skill in the game, members of the team are aware that they cannot succeed without the input of every other member (Sitkowski, 2008). The coaches require each participant to engage in tactical practice either on a daily basis to improve their capability and possibility of achieving a win when faced with tough opponents. In this regard, the engagement in sports for students within the middle and high school levels is depicted as an important factor of building the character of a child (Sitkowski, 2008). It is less likely for students to engage in anti-social or delinquent behaviors when they participate in the various sports activities available at the school.
Expanded Learning Opportunities
The focus on the sports shows a close relation between the social and cognitive skills of a student. The numerous drills and practices that students engage in provide a learning opportunity to build these skills. However, it is important to note that not all students can become part of the school’s varsity teams for the various sports available (Harris, Deschenes, & Wallace, 2011). This should not mean that the child should abandon all forms of extra-curricular activities. Expanded learning opportunities (ELO) may help keep children from engaging in undesirable behaviors. The ELOs offer older students a structured learning environment that is different from the traditional school day (Harris, Deschenes, & Wallace, 2011). Through instances such as summer schools and extended day or year programs, students get the opportunity to improve knowledge on various learning areas of their desire (Smith, 1995). Practices such as arts, civic engagement, and science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) provide enriching learning activities that could help the child from engaging in negative behaviors (Harris, Deschenes, & Wallace, 2011). The ELOs help to maintain a positive academic trajectory for the child ensuring successful graduation while minimizing occurrence of high school drop-out. By simply requiring students to attend school so as to participate in the ELOs, it prevents the incidence of illegitimate absenteeism from school.
Attitude Adjustment
The above research evidently shows that incorporating the term “at-risk” in reference to a child significantly leads to the stigmatization of the children. The community quickly redirects the concept of being “at-risk” to mean that the children are problematic or bad influence. In many cases, this perception of the individual members brings about a negative attitude towards the children who bear this label (Blake et al., 2016). The individual social worker or teacher should note that there is significant power in language such that the utterances made towards these children have an impact on their experiences and recreates their social reality. A student at-risk who is usually referred to as juvenile primarily because of his or her family background will take up the label and enforce the behavior into their lives. Therefore, it is essential to participate in a significant attitude adjustment so as to attend to the needs of the children. This practice involves all members of the community not only the teaching and school staff (Blake et al., 2016). Calling attention to all the problematic issues associated with the child makes it difficult to identify and appreciate the talents of these children. Research shows that majority of the students struggling with academic achievement do not have learning disabilities. Rather, the schools neglect their need for alternative learning practices that differ from other children.
Resilience
From all the above interventions that could help alleviate the risks that the children within this age group could encounter one of the major factors to incorporate is resilience. At risk children usually demonstrate a lack of belief in their individual skills. As a result, they give up on themselves and on life in general (Smith, 1995). It is important that educators and school counselors help students enhance their resilience to the difficulties affecting their lives. As in the case of sports activities, students learn from experience that it is not always possible to win in every game. However, it is the reaction that the individual and associated members incorporate that will determine the frequency of loss. The same is depicted in the ELOs and attitude adjustment. The student begins to develop a more positive attitude towards the various activities they may engage in helping them realize successful transition into adult life.
References
Barrett, D. E., Ju, S., Katsiyannis, A., & Zhang, D. (2013). Females in the Juvenile Justice System: Influences on Delinquency and Recidivism. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24 (2), 427-433. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9853-8
Bartollas, C., & Schmalleger, F. (2018). Juvenile delinquency . NY: Pearson Education.
Blake, J. J., Zhou, Q., Kwok, O. M., & Benz, M. R. (2016). Predictors of Bullying Behavior, Victimization, and Bully-Victim Risk Among High School Students With Disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 37 (5), 285-295.
Chambliss, W. J. (2011). Juvenile crime and justice . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Dobizl, Janis Kay. (2002). Understanding at-risk youth and intervention programs that help them succeed in school . Menomonie, WI: University of Wisconsin--Stout.
Farrington, D. P., Ttofi, M. M., & Piquero, A. R. (2016). Risk, promotive, and protective factors in youth offending: Results from the Cambridge study in delinquent development. Journal of Criminal Justice, 45 , 63-70.
Fitzpatrick, C., Archambault, I., Janosz, M., & Pagani, L. S. (2015). Early childhood working memory forecasts high school dropout risk. Intelligence, 53 , 160-165.
Harris, E., Deschenes, S., & Wallace, A. (2011). Helping older youth succeed through expanded learning opportunities . (NCLS & Harvard Family Research Project Brief Series: ELO Research, Policy, and Practice No. 1). Retrieved from http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/publications-series/ncsl-harvard-family-research-project-brief-series-elo-research-policy-practice/helping-older-youth-succeed-through-expanded-learning-opportunities
Moon, M. (2011). The Effects of Divorce on Children: Married and Divorced Parents' Perspectives. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 52 (5), 344-349. doi:10.1080/10502556.2011.585093
Rocque, M., Jennings, W. G., Piquero, A. R., Ozkan, T., & Farrington, D. P. (2017). The importance of school attendance: Findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development on the Life-Course Effects of Truancy. Crime & Delinquency, 63 (5), 592-612.
Sitkowski, Lee. (2008). The effects of participation in athletics on academic performance among high school sophomores and juniors . Lynchburg, VA: Liberty University.
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Vézina, J., Hébert, M., Poulin, F., Lavoie, F., Vitaro, F., & Tremblay, R. E. (2015). History of family violence, childhood behavior problems, and adolescent high-risk behaviors as predictors of girls’ repeated patterns of dating victimization in two developmental periods. Violence Against Women, 21 (4), 435-459.
Wimer, C., Simpkins, S. D., Dearing, E., Bouffard, S. M., Caronongan, P., & Weiss, H. B. (2008). Predicting Youth Out-of-School Time Participation: Multiple Risks and Developmental Differences. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54 (2), 179-207. doi:10.1353/mpq.2008.0019
