Following the expansion of China’s economy in recent years, so has its capacity to engage in substantial development assistance programs. Both foreign aid and investment activities initiated by the Chinese government have burgeoned in recent years. Many developing countries have been recipients of China’s aid. The rationale stems from the embarkment on infrastructure and investments that will foster economic growth and wealth creation. In East Africa, for instance, China has financed projects and investments that have improved sustainable ecological outcomes. Regardless of the many grounds on which these projects are beneficial, they have, on many occasions, resulted in the displacement of thousands of people, subjecting them to social and economic hardships. Besides, the projects have disrupted the ecological systems in these areas.
Constituents of China’s Aid
China provides various types of foreign aid, including materials and goods, human resources, medical expertise, technical assistance, debt relief, humanitarian aid, and volunteer programs. Chinese aid to East Africa covers a broad array of sectors such as transport, education, and health, among others. Strange et al. (2013), in their study, reveal that over the years, China has provided over 500 aid projects to East Africa, including roads, hydropower projects, hospitals, and schools, among others. The billions of dollars committed to East Africa are long-term repayable loans. It is estimated that by 2025 China will have financed over one trillion in African developmental projects and investments.
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Since China reformed, especially after 2000, East Africa has become an increasingly important partner. Furthermore, Africa is well endowed with natural resources and market potential. Much of Chinese financing to Africa is associated with securing the natural resources within the region. The provision of low-interest loans is in exchange for natural resources that serve as collateral. Shinn (2016) notes that China’s investments in East Africa are in environmentally sensitive areas. The issue has sparked controversies and debates regarding these projects. For example, China’s investment in the oil sector in South Sudan and mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo have negative environmental consequences such as the death of livestock, water pollution, and even serious diseases among the local communities. In his study, Shinn (2016) clearly outlines the environmental problems associated with Chinese aided projects; for example, in Kenya, there have been issues such as soil pollution, displacement of people, and disruption of the natural crossing of wild animals. In Uganda, there have been numerous cases of Chinese firms engaging in corruption in bribes other than allocating spending for environmental assessment and protection. Investment and projects funded by China, particularly in East Africa, have been heavily and widely criticized because China aids developments with weak environmental standards and the negative environmental and social impacts of the projects.
Case Studies in Kenya
Aforementioned, Kenya is embarking on comprehensive developmental projects championed by the economic policy dubbed “Vision 2030” that aims to elevate sustainable livelihoods in the country. A crucial strategy to realize the developments are the bilateral loans from China, which have increased in manifolds over the years. Since 1964 when bilateral relations between Kenya and China began, China has aided an approximation of $5 billion. The financial aid became particularly significant after 2002. As of 2016, Kenya’s foreign debt to China stood at $3.1 billion (Kamakia et al., 2018). In East Africa, Kenya has recorded the fastest increase in foreign debt. Besides financial aid, it is not uncommon to see Chinese personnel in the country. By the end of 2015, Kenya hosted over 400 Chinese firms, especially in the economy's transport, construction, and communication sectors. In 2016, China opened the Chinese- African Development Fund office in Nairobi to oversee Chinese companies investing in the country. In collaboration, the Kenyan government and various agencies have signed agreements with Chinese authorities to finance public investment projects. Two major projects that have raised environmental concerns in Kenya are the Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) and the Nairobi Southern Bypass Project
The Standard Gauge Railway Project
The Standard Gauge Railway is one of the government's largest public projects since independence in terms of scale and anticipated benefits. It is worth noting that the construction is being done by the China Road and Bridge Corporation. Some of the SGR project's anticipated economic benefits include an increased volume of goods from the port of Mombasa to Nairobi and neighboring countries (Irandu & Owilla, 2020). According to a recently done research, the authors reveal that the SGR construction in Kenya resulted in significant displacement of people since it passes through informal settlements (Githaiga & Bing, 2020). There was an advisory to the Kenya Railways Corporation to consider rerouting the SGR, but the proposal was declined. Instead, the authorities involve expropriated new land that would accommodate the displaced persons. Research further reveals that approximately 50,000 people were displaced during the first phase of the project. An average of $10 billion was used to compensate people for displacement and resettlement, including transportation costs. The project's officials noted that resettlement was the underlying strategy for displacement mainly because alternatives would result in other land issues and escalated construction costs.
The agency responsible for Kenya's environmental concerns, the National Environmental Management Authority, monitored and issued an approval license. This is regardless of the core issues that the locals complained about. According to NEMA, an Environmental Impact Assessment was carried out and approval granted. However, issues arose following the sourcing of sand from nearby beach resorts. The SGR sourcing sand from the beach was degrading the aesthetic aspects of the Kenyan Coastal beaches.
Another environmental impact of SGR is the disruption of wildlife. It is worth noting that the SGR cuts through the Tsavo National Park. The issue was a point of concern before the commencement of the project but was not well addressed. Furthermore, the NEMA license issuance indicated that solutions would be sought to address the wildlife disruption concerns. To mitigate the railway's disturbance on the migration routes of giraffes, elephants, and other wildlife between Tsavo West and Tsavo East, the CRBC designed corridors under the railway's dam (Zhao, 2020). Besides, animals can now pass under the Voi River Super Bridge that cuts through Tsavo’s elephant corridor. The issue has sparked concerns among environmental conservatives with the claims that the frequent passing of the trains through the SGR may negatively impact some animals, consequently affecting tourism in the region. A similar situation is likely to recur during the second phase of the SGR that is expected to extend from Nairobi to Naivasha (Ambani, 2017). The Nairobi National Park is under threat. Overall, limited efforts have been achieved by the CRBC at minimizing the negative impacts of the Chinese-aided projects on the environment, and the ecosystem depends on it.
The Nairobi Southern Bypass Road Project
Another significant Kenyan case study that sheds light on the environmental consequences of Chinese-financed projects in East Africa is the Nairobi Southern Bypass project. The rationale behind this project stems from the ecological dynamics surrounding it. The project's core purpose was to divert traffic that is rampant at Nairobi’s Central Business District. Undertaken by the CRBC, China’s Exim Bank financed 90% of the project (Kamakia et al., 2018). Since its partial completion, the project has significantly decongested traffic from the center of the city.
The project was undertaken by the Kenya National Highways authority and just as the SGR, NEMA duly issued a license to approve the project. A key concern regarding the project was that it passes through a densely populated region in the city. As such, the erection of the road would cause massive disruption of people from their informal settlement areas. In response, the project sought to acquire new land on which it would settle the displaced persons. As a result, approximately 195,000 hectares of land were acquired. As required by the Environmental Impact Assessment conducted by NEMA, the compensation included commercial buildings and private houses in Dagoretti, Thogoto, Kikuyu, and Langata (Kamakia et al., 2018). Also, a significant part of Kenya Presbyterian University was affected. Other people involved included the owners of small businesses such as mini kiosks. They were also compensated to relocate their businesses and transport, among other expenses taken into consideration
Despite the displacement of some people and the disruption of means of earning a livelihood, it is worth noting that the Southern Bypass successfully avoided the most significant informal settlement in Kenya-Kibera. According to the head of research for the project, plans were underway to convert the adjacent public lands to community lands to enhance Kibera's sustainability. Also, the construction of the China-finance project did not interfere with the environment’s archeological sites (Kamakia et al., 2018). The project has greatly enhanced the urban environment and spurred economic developments in the region based on recent research. Notably, before the Southern Bypass Road construction, there were environmental concerns presented by the Friends of Nairobi National Park. The critical complaint concerned the project's ecological impact that arose from the acquisition of land on the Nairobi National Park's peripheral edge. The issue was addressed effectively, and the Kenya Wildlife Trust Fund was given compensation for the same. Conclusively the findings from case studies indicate that the Chinese-aided projects have environmental impacts revolving around the disruption of wildlife, displacement of people, and soil pollution. The economic effects, however, have been beneficial in improving the sustainability of Kenyans
Case Study of Uganda
Just as in Kenya, China has increased its presence in Uganda. Extensive studies have documented Chinese investments in the country. Akhataruzzaman, Berg, & Lien (2017), in their research, investigate China's role as an investor and economic contributor in the country and how FDI flows are managed. The study finds out that policymakers in Uganda are altering developing policies to increase the projects' positive impacts. In another study, Warmerdam & van Dijk (2013) argue that China has become a force of change in Africa, including Uganda. In the context of this research, it is worth noting that Uganda’s national debt was approximately $10 billion, a third of which belongs to China. Usually, the approval of the loans is smooth as there is little opposition to the ruling government.
The 50km Kampala-Entebbe Expressway
The Kampala-Entebbe Expressway joins the Northern By-pass of Busega in Kampala to the Entebbe International Airport. Developed by the Uganda National Railroad Authority, the expressway has enhanced economic developments in the country. Its construction began in 2012 following the Ugandan Government consultation with China. The core purpose of the project was to improve traffic conditions from Kampala city and adjacent bypasses. The project also aimed to enhance Ugandans' sustainability by offering job opportunities and increasing the goods at Entebbe Airport and Kampala. Regardless of the economic benefits anticipated from the project, it is worth noting that there have been environmental concerns.
Following the impact assessment conducted by NEMA in Uganda, one of the project's ecological consequences is land loss. According to (Muwaza 2019), land impacts resulting from the project were associated with the primary necessity to acquire land to construct new routes, associated infrastructure, and ancillary facilities. The loss of land was permanent and temporary, which negatively impacted people’s ability to have sustainable livelihood and severe damage to the existing roads. The significant type of land affected was pastoral land, a considerable percentage located along Mukono District. The loss of agro-pastoral land had associated impacts on both people and livestock. Communities around lost their source of livelihoods while there was inadequate pasture for the cattle. In addition to the loss of land, another detrimental effect of the China-aided project is the massive displacement of people. Displacement and Resettlement of people disrupt the ecology as well as the social systems of communities involved.
Further, the study indicates that over 6000residential homes and structures were demolished following the construction of the road. It is estimated that a significant number of people have informally settled in this region. Most of the residences have no claims on the land assets and therefore are not eligible for compensation (Muwaza, 2019). Considering that they are not entitled to compensation, the impact on the affected population is significant. Based on the impact assessment, it was noted that the project also had negative impacts on water and sanitation infrastructure. This is because approximately five public toilets and 25 water points would be interfered with. The displacement of these facilities negatively affected the environment as people had to defecate anywhere before they could be replaced. Also, the environment lost its aesthetics due to the unavailability of water to keep it clean. Also, the plants, trees, and forests that relied on water from these sources were affected. The disturbance of land generally increased the detrimental effects of climate change in the region.
Another environmental concern emanating from the project relates to the materials used and their disposability. The project involved numerous activities that generated waste. For example, there were operations in quarries and borrow pits. The rationale is that the construction of the road will require gravel, fill, and rock. After completing the projects, the borrow pits and the quarries were left unfilled (Muwaza, 2019). The holes are harmful to the residents' safety; besides, some have been filled with garbage leading to further pollution. A significant amount of waste was also sourced from the clearing of land and demolition of structures. Management and re-use of this waste were, to a large extent, dependent on the type of waste. In most cases, the destruction was non-usable and was left to cause further damage to the environment.
There is also the concern of noise and air pollution of the surrounding environment during the project's construction. Based on the impact assessment carried out, the project resulted in different noise levels. During the preconstruction, there was minimum noise. However, when the Kampala Expressway construction began, there was noise resulting from quarries blasting, particularly in Wakio District (Muwaza, 2019). Therefore, the china-aided project should aim to mitigate the noise as it could cause hearing problems to children in the surrounding communities. Following the negative environmental impacts of china-aided projects in East Africa, as revealed in the Uganda and Kenya case studies, it is apparent that solutions should be sought to avoid further environmental degradation.
Proposed Future Solutions
Based on the presented evidence of literature, it is apparent that Chinese investments in East Africa are receiving criticisms and attention based on environmental degradation. Therefore, solutions must be sought to reduce the impacts as Africa continues with its ties with China. One solution would be for the systemic examination of Chinese investments in the region to determine the environmental abuses taking place and which sectors are being impacted. According to Shin (2016), the study is based on comparisons between Beijing and Africa. Larger companies tend to pay more attention to environmental issues as compared to small enterprises. Considering that the projects undertook in East Africa are mega, then severe environmental impacts have to be carried out before making proposals regarding an investment or project.
Another solution would be for the respective countries to strengthen their frameworks in the sense of cash compensation and displacement. The rationale stems from the fact that in a country like Kenya, cash compensation overrides the strategy of settling the displaced communities (Kamakia et al., 2018). As a result, the process of resettling people exceeds the number of anticipated years. The implication is that the displaced communities continue to suffer, especially when they mismanage the money. Furthermore, cash compensation may increase the purchase of goods but will not achieve the desired sustainable livelihoods for the affected people in the long-term. In a country like Uganda, the government should have concrete land laws that will ensure its people are protected in the events of negative impacts of these Chinese aided projects.
A final solution would be for China to collaborate with the African countries in advancing environmental and social safeguards for their client nations. Currently, the African Development Bank and the World Bank are scaling up environmental concerns for countries that have been financed and aided by China (Kamakia, 2018). The framework will boost the ecological outcomes of the Chinese investments undertaken in developing countries. A memorandum of understanding should be reached by both parties agreeing to observe sustainability, including maintaining the environments in which these projects are being implemented. Influence policies that advocate for sustainability should be encouraged. Also, there should be constant monitoring and supervision of ecological and social procedures to ensure they are not compromised.
In conclusion, this research paper analyzes concerns surrounding Chinese aid to African countries, particularly East Africa. The outcomes of the study are based on the projects in both Kenya and Uganda. The analysis of these projects' ecological and environmental impacts indicates that displacement, pollution, and disruption of the ecosystem are inevitable. Although the impact assessments have been carried out by the respective NEMA agencies and approval issued, there are risks associated with people's displacement and disruption of sustainable livelihood sources. Since China is playing a crucial role in the economic development in East Africa, desirable environmental outcomes should be a goal. As discussed, the above solutions can forge the way forward between China and East Africa from an ecological perspective.
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