Introduction
The Salem crisis is a significant historical period marked by witch trials that resulted in several casualties. The government was convinced that it was necessary that the witches are called out and convicted by execution. Cotton Mather was a scholar, minister, and physician who was particularly interested in the subject and conducted intensive research into the issue. His reports regarding his findings reached a broad audience and were interpreted as a go-ahead to continue with the witch trials. He continually advised the court on how to handle the trials, the type of evidence to look for, and how to deal with the bewitched. Nonetheless, the government word was supreme in the Puritan society, and many of his subsequent writings lacked objectivity. In the end, he became torn between accomplishing his role and supporting the government’s efforts in eradicating witches in the Puritan society. Cotton Mather, during the time of the Salem Witch Trials, worked to shape the perceptions of the ordinary people towards witches and witchcraft through his popular narratives regarding some instances and compelling sermons, both of which were widely accessible to the Puritan people.
Background Information
Cotton Mather’s birth conditions into a world and family of fame prepared him for the great destiny as one of the revered historical figures during his time. Cotton Mather was born on 12th February 1663 to a family of a Reverend, among them his father, Rev Increase Mather. His father held several prominent positions in the society including the presidency at Harvard College, minister at the South Boston Church and reputable political leader. Cotton Mather started his schooling at Harvard at the tender age of 12 years following his exemplary performance in Latin and Greek. 1 He received his M.A at the age of 18 and decided to pursue clerical service. He, however, had interests in medicine and was a terrible stutter. Nonetheless, he still pursued clerical work and served his first sermon in 1685 at the age of 22 years. Cotton Mather is mostly remembered for his involvement with the Salem witches during the 1690s, although he never achieved his father’s societal influence. However, he was a master with the pen and managed to write over 400 publications on issues such as the witches of Salem and other medical issues. One of his publications, Curiosa American (1712-1724) earned him the recognition of fellow scientists, and he was elected into the Royal Society of London. 2
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However, he earned his reputation and recognition by popular figures through his intense interest in witchcraft and satanic tendencies which resulted in multiple trial proceedings involving both judges and ministers. Even before the accusation of witchcraft in Salem village, Mather had already written his first account of featuring the Godwin children, Remarkable Providences in 1684. He spent a considerable amount of time with 13-year-old Martha at the time studying her behavior at his house. Although scholars would later associate the behavior mentioned in the book with clinical hysteria, it was used as a model for afflicted children at the time. His description of the satanic moves in Salem was an inspiration for the war against witchcraft which targeted young girls in the Salem village. Notably, Mather was not directly involved in the Salem trials, but he wrote severally to the ministers and judges regarding the same. In one of the letters to the Magistrate, John Richards of Boston, he advised the court against the use of spectral evidence. In the report “Return of Several Ministers” he explained that spectral evidence was unreliable as the devil could impersonate an innocent person. He also advised against using witch tests such as the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer.
However, in the last paragraph, he insinuated the detection of witches, which was perceived as a go-ahead for the Salem trials. His contribution towards the Salem trials with specific trials such as that of George Burroughs, a former minister raised concerns. Robert Calef reports of the incidence in his book More Wonders of the Invisible World where the former minister recites the Lord’s Prayer perfectly at his execution, a quest that was considered impossible for the possessed. 3 Despite the apparent evidence that the former minister could not possibly be possessed and attempts from the crowd to stop the execution, Mather insisted that the devil had finally managed to take the shape of the angel of light. However, Mather was convinced that George Burroughs was a witch following a confession by five other witches accusing Burroughs as the ringleader of ten other Andover witches. Calef’s report of the book tainted Mather’s reputation to the point that he sued on libel grounds, but the case remained unsolved until his death. 4 His diaries reveal regret and remorse for the people’s thanklessness. Additionally, it is apparent that towards the end, Mather certainly felt that he could have done more to stop the court proceedings along with its aftermath.
Mather still holds the reputation of the most notorious witch hunter of the time, and for his contribution towards the crisis. During the time, he also produced several controversial writings regarding the issue and was even more actively involved than other divine personnel of the time, hence his responsibility in the ensuing crisis. Notably, his writings received a massive audience from both the government and the puritan society. A significant aspect from the events is that Mather was only playing along to the expectations of the community at the time. Moreover, his reluctant support was an effort not to challenge the authorities directly. Throughout his life, Mather lived in the shadows of his father and followed in his footsteps, although it was apparent that he would have preferred to follow a different path as a physician. 5 Later when he was requested to write on controversial topics, he delved into the subject of the Salem witches. However, at first, many believed him as a witch scholar and not a witch hunter. He was, therefore, considered knowledgeable in the area and his judgments considered reasonable.
His actions also informed the puritan society greatly in conducting the witch trials. His participation began with the Goodwin children after it was revealed that the children started displaying symptoms of the afflicted after a quarrel with one of the domestic workers named Glover. Later, Glover confessed to bewitching the children and mentioned other accomplices, but Mather was careful not to reveal the names because he believed that witches were loyal to the devil, and therefore, they should not be trusted. This aspect is constant in all his writings with a strict warning to carefully examine the evidence against witches and to never believe evidence by other witches because it could be the devil trying to incriminate innocent people. Glover was later executed, and although the afflictions of the Goodwin children continued for a while, Mather was finally successful in curing them. 6 Mather strongly believed that prayer was the only cure for bewitchment and witchcraft and he proved so by healing the Goodwin children even though their affliction continued for some time after the execution of Glover. He also offered help to the afflicted, but the court rejected his offer.
In spite of his associations with the Salem crisis, Mather tried very hard to stop the trials, and instead resolved to prayer and fasting. One such case that proves his reluctance is that of Mercy Short, a young girl abducted by Indians. Following her return, Mercy displayed signs of being afflicted, and would occasionally name the witches that bewitched her, but Mather tried to suppress her accusations to prevent continued court trials and proceedings. 7 Mather was genuinely convinced that if people were accused, the trials would continue and the crisis would grow out of hand. In parts like Europe, witches were forced to confess through torture, but in New England, the witches were identified through court procedures involving numerous court experts. Mather was considered a learned person who had studied the opinions of other experts regarding the issue. One such expert was William Perkins who in his discourse, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft , argued that the devil was a potent enemy in New England, and spectral evidence was not reliable. He was particularly skeptical about the tendency by other witches to name others during their confessions. Perkins was persuaded that Malice could inspire such tendencies. 8 Nonetheless, a person’s social relations were significantly affected when they were involved in such accusations. Another skeptical evidence that Perkins advised caution is the assumption that if a person was afflicted following a conflict with a suspected witch, that was conclusive. However, he warned that there was a need for investigations into such suspicions.
Although not directly involved in the trials, Mather had a significant contribution towards the Salem crisis. Mather played a significant role in influencing the puritan society regarding various ways including his belief in witches, his zealous efforts in finding them and defending the court for the Salem trials. However, his defenders also acknowledge the fact that he advised caution in approaching the issue of the witches, and discredited the use of spectral evidence, therefore reducing the number of potential trials. 9 Mather believed that it was better for ten witches to escape to save a single innocent person. Most people are unsure as to the motive behind his many writings regarding the issue of witchcraft, possession, and witch trials with the likes of Peter Charles Hoffer convinced that Mather’s writings contributed significantly towards the Salem crisis.
Memorable Providences which featured the Goodwin children was proof that there was an invisible world which was a real threat to the people of New England. He also emphasized that the Puritan society had decreased in their piety, hence the need to foster their faith in fighting the devil and his schemes. However, while some perceived Mather’s reports as a warning into the potential threat of the invisible world, others believed that Matter set the pace for the usual symptoms fit for bewitchment and possession. Regardless of Mather’s intention, his interpretation into the matter would later be assumed as signs befitting bewitchment. According to his critics, the likes of Calef, Mather influenced many Puritans to interpret many common illnesses as signs of bewitchment and possession. 10 However, in many of his writings, he prompted the Puritans to pay attention to the spiritual world, and its close association with the material world. He stressed the importance of leading a religious and morally upright lifestyle.
In a letter sent to one of his judge friends John Foster, who was also a member of the Governor’s Council, Mather again advised against the use of spectral evidence in witch trials, but he also applauded the judges and expressed his confidence in their ability to conduct fair trials. Mather later wrote the book Wonders which recounted several Salem witch trials. 11 Although Mather did his best to remain neutral by only reporting the proceedings as they happened, critics saw this as the work of the judges trying to defend their actions and their hand in the Salem crisis. Mather also insinuated that the government had forced his hand in mentioning the case of George Burroughs in the book. However, in the book which only had five cases based on the materials he was allowed access, he did not manage to get his hand on controversial cases such as that of John Proctor and Rebecca Nurse who were believed to be innocent but were otherwise convicted. 12 Mather’s position in the Puritan society accorded him respect and a significant amount of influence, and therefore, when he first started writing about the witches, it was interpreted as a call to seek out the witches. The situation was aggravated by the Puritan officials who forced their hand by dictating what he wrote, mostly in defense of the government. Mather was only serving his duty to both God and his superiors.
Conclusion
Cotton Mather was an influential figure in the Puritan society whose particular interest in witchcraft contributed significantly towards the Salem crisis through his writings and sermons. Mather himself was not in support of witch trials and the subsequent executions. At first, Mather’s only intention was to bring the powers of the invisible world to the attention of the Puritan society and advise caution and reinforcement of their faith in dealing with the issue. According to him, prayer and fasting were adequate tools in dealing with the issue of witchcraft, and he expressed this by practicing it. However, the Puritan society, which was totalitarian, dictated the content of his writings mostly in defense of the government. Nonetheless, his writings were not without consequence as he fostered the belief that witches were present in the Puritan society, and he encouraged the courts to continue with the trials and executions. The Salem crisis soon ensued as the witch trials continued for a while. However, some of the convicts were deemed innocent by the public, hence the controversy that tainted his reputation to date.
Bibliography
Callis, Marc. "The Aftermath of the Salem Witch Trials in Colonial America." Historical Journal of Massachusetts 33, no. 2 (2005): 187.
Colburn, Josephine. "Gender and the Salem Witchcraft Trials." (2012).
Kloepper, Deborah Kelly. “Cotton Mather’s “Dora” The Case History of Mercy Short” Early American Literature 44, no.1, (2009) 3-38
Mather, Cotton. "The Wonders of the Invisible World. Observations as Well Historical as Theological, upon Nature, the Number, and the Operations of the Devils (Boston, MA: 1693), Available online at Electronic Texts in American Studies."
Miller, Perry. The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century. Macmillan, 1949.
Silverman, Kenneth. "The Life and Times of Cotton Mather (New York, 1984)."
Smith, Rebecca T. "Cotton Mather's Involvement in the Salem Crisis." The Spectrum: A Scholars Day Journal 2, no. 1 (2013): 11.
1 Kenneth, Silverman. "The Life and Times of Cotton Mather (New York, 1984)."
2 T. Rebecca Smith. "Cotton Mather's Involvement in the Salem Crisis." The Spectrum: A Scholars Day Journal 2, no. 1 (2013): 11.
3 Cotton, Mather. "The Wonders of the Invisible World.
4 T. Rebecca Smith. "Cotton Mather's Involvement in the Salem Crisis." The Spectrum: A Scholars Day Journal 2, no. 1 (2013): 11.
5 Ibid
6 Kenneth, Silverman. "The Life and Times of Cotton Mather (New York, 1984)."
7 Kelly Deborah Kloepper. “Cotton Mather’s “Dora” The Case History of Mercy Short”
8 Kenneth, Silverman. "The Life and Times of Cotton Mather (New York, 1984)."
9 Perry , Miller. The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century.
10 Josephine, Colburn. "Gender and the Salem Witchcraft Trials." (2012).
11 Marc, Callis. "The Aftermath of the Salem Witch Trials in Colonial America."
12 T. Rebecca Smith. "Cotton Mather's Involvement in the Salem Crisis." The Spectrum: A Scholars Day Journal 2, no. 1 (2013): 1
