Ethics is a philosophical field and a system of moral precepts which elucidates wrong and right conduct amid individuals in the society. Deontological ethics is a moral theory based on the non-consequentialist perspective of individuals and moral decision-making (Lazar, 2017). The term deontology is derived from a Greek work, deon , (duty or obligation) (Lazar, 2017). Deontological ethics is associated with the notion that various consequences do not usually rationalize actions, rather, by the other factors that establish the rightness of a particular action. Deontological ethics is found on the "Categorical Imperative,” coined by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher in 1785 in his book, Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (Lazar, 2017). In his book, Immanuel Kant asserts that to conduct oneself in a morally right manner, one ought to act from duty.
He also argues that an individual's motives to undertake a particular action determines whether the action is wrong or right, as opposed to the immediate consequences of one's actions. Kant claims that the highest good ought to be good without any stipulation and good in itself. A particular action is considered good in itself when it is perceived as intrinsically good. Additionally, a specific action may be regarded as good without stipulations in instances where the implementation of the action does not make a particular situation ethically worse. Kant's conceptualization of categorical imperative is based on three major formulations: The formula of autonomy, humanity, and the law of nature and universality (Lazar, 2017). Some of the major criticisms of deontological ethics include the notion that the theory is typified by moral absolutes and the fact that they do not provide a platform to evaluate the morality of a particular action.
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Utilitarianism ethics, on the other hand, is a normative ethical theory which places the rationale of wrong and right on the sequels of preferring one policy or action over others (Valentinov, 2017). Utilitarianism ethics goes beyond the scope of a person’s interests, and it puts other people’s interests into consideration. Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism which argues that the outcomes of a particular action are the sole standards of wrong and right. Jeremy Bentham coined the concept of utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham delineated utility as the summation of all pleasure sourced from a particular action. He claimed that utility often recognizes the fundamental roles of pleasure and pain in an individual’s life, it associates evil actions with pain and good actions with pleasure, and it disapproves or approves a particular action based on the level of pleasure or pain generated by the action (consequences) Additionally, he asserts that pain and pleasure are often quantifiable and, therefore, can be measured. Bentham introduces the following criteria as a basis for the evaluation of pain and pleasure: Intensity, Duration, Uncertainty (Certainty), and Nearness (Picquadio, 2017).
John Stuart Mill modified various hedonistic proclivities in Bentham’s philosophy by emphasizing certain features. He stresses that the standard of happiness is critical to utilitarianism as opposed to the standard of pleasure (Picquadio, 2017). He claimed that Bentham’s calculus is irrational since qualities are not quantifiable. Additionally, he asserted that utilitarianism relates to the greatest happiness precept which seeks to promote one’s capacity to achieve happiness. Other utilitarianism developments include Ideal Utilitarianism by Hastings Rashdall, Act and Rule Utilitarianism, Two-Level Utilitarianism, Preference Utilitarianism, Motive Utilitarianism, and Negative Utilitarianism. Act and Rule Utilitarianism is based on various principles. Under act utilitarianism, the utility precept is often applied directly to every alternative action in a specific circumstance of choice (Picquadio, 2017). The right action is later delineated as the one which generates the ultimate outcomes. Under rule utilitarianism, the utility principle is usually used to assess the validity of the moral tenets (rules of conduct). A promise-keeping rule is later established by evaluating the consequences of the world in which individuals broke promises willingly and a world typified by binding promises (Valentinov, 2017). The concepts of wrong and right are then delineated.
There are various criticisms surrounding utilitarianism ethics. One major criticism of utilitarianism ethics is based on the notion of utility quantification. Utilitarianism ethics is typified by the incapacity to quantify, compare, or evaluate well-being or happiness (Valentinov, 2017). Secondly, utilitarianism ethics ignores the concept of justice. Under rule-utilitarianism, it is usually possible to create unjust rules. Thirdly, one may encounter difficulties in predicting consequences under utilitarianism ethics. Various researchers assert that it is impossible to do utilitarianism calculations since consequences are inherently known; it is also impossible to allocate an accurate utility value to a particular incident. Fourthly, utilitarianism is typified by demandingness objection (Valentinov, 2017). For instance, act utilitarianism emphasizes the need to implement various strategies to maximize utility without any form of favoritism; it generally requires an individual to be strictly impartial as a benevolent and disinterested spectator. Lastly, utilitarianism ethics often aggregate utility, and various difficulties in utility calculations typify it.
References
Lazar, S. (2017). Deontological decision theory and Agent-Centered options . Ethics , 127(3), 579–609.
Piacquadio, P. G. (2017). A Fairness justification of utilitarianism. Econometrica , 85(4), 1261–1276.
Valentinov, V. (2017). The Rawlsian critique of utilitarianism: A Luhmannian interpretation. Journal of Business Ethics , 142(1), 25–35.
