A few decades ago, studies on the role of women in different societies in antiquity were limited. Interestingly, the basic knowledge of the role of women is acquired through the information that is provided by men. Nonetheless, the exact position and status of the gender under scrutiny is not only ancient Rome but also the majority of ancient societies is usually masked by biases of ancient male writers and scholars who existed between the 19 th and 201st century CE ( Rey & Rothstein, 2015 ). The prevalence of gender stereotypes in early Rome is evident in the works of philosophers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Galen. Notably, women were perceived as both physically and mentally weaker than men. The roles of women were relatively inferior to those of men, who were assigned more complex responsibilities, due to their perceived physical and mental strength.
A deeper understanding of the roles played by women is contingent on knowledge of the attitudes held by this society towards women, which is revealed through Roman mythology. In the rape of the Sabine women, for instance, the first Roman settlers not only kidnapped women from foreign tribes and raped them, but also took them as their wives without their consent. The main reason that drove these actions was the desire to form national alliances through blood ties. Usually, these tribes reclaimed their women through the declaration of wars. In the story, captured women such as Hersilia, Romulus’s wife, attempted to intercede during the initial states of war, to prevent bloodshed. Women were not only inferior to men but also considered objects of male satisfaction. In detail, they were subjected to rape, and their fates rested in the hands of men. Nonetheless, they played one critical role which was top link families in the society through marriage.
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The responsibilities of Roman women revolved mostly around the house and the family. In ancient Rome, women were accountable for looking after their homes and nurturing their families. Giving rise to legitimate children was one of their core duties. Notably, this was the result of early marriages which at times occurred at the age of twenty, and to some extents, before puberty ( Rey & Rothstein, 2015) . Early marriages prevented young ladies from having sexual encounters with other men besides their future husbands. Those who experienced premarital sex brought embarrassment not only to their families and themselves but to the men who they were supposed to be betrothed to.
The most respected women were those who gave rise to male children. Gender stereotypes were predominant and not only stemmed from the views of the ordinary people but philosophical opinions which vindicated the stereotypes. Women were assigned house-related and delicate tasks such as spinning, weaving, and childcare, among others. Their supposed physical, psychological, and emotional subservience ensured that they had no place in politics and combat, affairs that could only be handled by men. Literary texts by various prolific philosophers support these claims. Aristotle claimed that men were naturally fit for command than women. Thoughts such as this prevailed society and increased female inferiority. Women were typically designed for carrying, birthing, and nurturing young ones.
The inherent differences between the two genders went beyond just physical construction, to cognitive capacity. Ancient philosophers, in their viewpoints and texts, emphasized the differences between the two sexes. Hippocratic, in his theory, for instance, argued that the main distinction between the two genders was the difference in their mental abilities ( Zager, 2014 ). The Romans compared a weak body to a feeble mind. Galen, another philosopher, claimed that women were imperfect because they were considered colder. The philosopher further argued that warm animals were extremely active as compared to cold ones. Hence, he attributed lower levels of perfection to colder animals. Aristotle shared similar sentiments when he claimed that women were more susceptible to misery, less optimistic, more prone to shame, deceiving, and false of speech in comparison to men. In the classical world, women were perceived to have a mediocre intellect and sense of morality, merely because they were physically weak. Physical and mental weakness was used as the basis for the isolation of women in public affairs, war, and leadership. Even though they were considered emotional and irrational creatures, women were critical for the continuation of humanity.
In society, women had limited roles. Notably, they were not allowed to attend, voice their opinions or even vote in political assemblies. Likewise, they could not run for various leadership and legislative seats since they were reserved for men. The only way that they could influence public affairs was through prominent and powerful husbands, which was an exception. Just like other past communities, Roman society was a highly patriarchal one. The most senior male figure was the head of each family. Conversely, women were subordinate to men, and this is depicted in the Roman naming customs. Three names: praenomen, nomen, and cognomen, were assigned to male citizens while female versions of these same were used for women. Married women had two primary options after marriage. In the first, they could maintain their maiden name or inherit their husband's name (MacLachlan, 2013). In the home setting, they would attend to house chores and work on handicrafts. Upper-class females had access to education and studies various academic disciplines such as philosophy and literature.
Women overly depended on their husbands, brothers, fathers, and other male relatives. The co-dependence was evident in matters such as law and finance. It was crucial for women to have a male figure to act in their interests. Only women with three to four children, as well as vestal virgins, were exempted from this arrangement. Women had no right to control property, a rule that was formulated to ensure that inherited wealth remained under the control of men. They were further required to adhere strictly to the law, comply with the wishes of their male relatives, as well as meet the expectations set for them by society. The Roman Law stipulated that offspring from both of these genders had equal inheritance rights. Nonetheless, women were denied the chance to handle their financial affairs, own businesses, and run estates, even when the male head of the family was deceased.
Male chauvinism is evident in ancient Rome. Even though women inherited and owned property, they were denied control over their assets. Society deemed them incapable of handling such complicated affairs. The chauvinist notion is stressed by Cicero, a prolific Roman philosopher, in his works. A wife’s property was separately kept from her husbands, by the law. Interestingly, men had the right to reclaim dowry in the event of divorce ( Hemelrijk, 2013 ). Under Roman law, a woman could easily escape the confines of marriage by filing for a divorce. However, they were required to leave behind any children that belonged to their husbands since it was believed that they were unable of taking care of the young in the absence of men.
Women were denied any political rights as Roman citizens. Nonetheless, they were less confined to the house and attended certain events, for instance, the gladiatorial matches at amphitheaters. Furthermore, they were responsible for household chores but were also assisted by slaves. According to Zager (2014), t hey were also homeschooled on various subjects such as philosophy and literature and acted as child educators by instilling multiple cultural and societal values into their children. Apart from child-upbringing, those who came from low social statuses worked to earn a living. Their areas of specialty, however, depended on their ranks, for instance, the slaves, free-born, foreigners, and native Romans worked in diverse sectors such as agriculture, crafts, midwifery, and even prostitution. Women were also allowed to practice concubinage with prominent men. The informal relationships were condoned by the public, and the title concubine was not disparaging. Even so, women were deprived of any personal freedom and could be killed for practicing adultery, or even drinking wine, without the consent of men. Obedience and honesty were two critical traits that every Roman woman was required to uphold.
Women were banned from participating in public affairs. However, they were required to exercise their social roles on special occasions such as burials, weddings, and religious festivals. Notably, it was only then that they were permitted to leave their homes . In the house set up, they had numerous duties which ranged from raising children, agriculture, cloth making, and supervising slaves. According to MacLachlan (2013), they strictly obeyed their husbands since it is with them that their freedom lay. Nevertheless, women also had some form of freedom and a life of their own based on their resources and the social statuses they held in society.
The courtesan (hetaira ) for instance, was not only an educated but an artistic woman who had intimate relationships with her patrons. Notably, the courtesan’s social status and the class were above that of other prostitutes and freedwomen. Women like her acted as entertainers at public symposiums which aristocratic women were banned from. The courtesan also enjoyed certain benefits such as wearing makeup to enhance her physical beauty. Even though men were allowed to have such relationships outside marriage, women received harsh punishments for any immoral acts. To some extents, the husbands of adulterous women were denied their civic rights especially if they insisted on living with their treacherous wives ( Hemelrijk, 2013 ). The grave consequences of a woman’s actions were also experienced by her husband.
Apart from this, they took part in gladiatorial games for entertainment purposes. The activity was a vital aspect of a funeral service. According to the internment and funeral customs, the fighters would enact scenes from popular folklore, literature, and even from the life of the dead person, as a tribute. The games were known as Munera, which was symbolic of duty or gift. The popularity of the gladiator games led to their lack of association with funerals and was sponsored by Aristocrats, especially those vying for prominent seats. Female gladiators were mostly the offspring of retired gladiators, who also issued the former’s training. Entry into the gladiatorial school meant that a woman had agreed to be beaten, burned, and even slain. Generally, women gave up their entire lives to entertain their audience. According to Crystal (2014) gladiators were owned by their schoolmasters who controlled all aspects of their lives. Female ones were trained by their fathers in private sessions using wooden swords. Each was taught to fight in four primary disciplines: The myrmillo, retiarius, Samnite, and Thracian. They were rewarded dramatically for their triumph in combat and gained not only fame, but fortune, and respectable lifestyles which surpassed those of the most respectable women in the society.
Women also acted as acted as physicians and medical practitioners. As midwives, the early Roman woman assisted others during childbirth. In case of any complications, they sought the help of expert physicians to protect the life of the mother and the child, and to ensure safe delivery. Midwives also administered treatments for abortions or even promote fertility, which was vital in various legal disputes. Furthermore, they also assessed the bodies of slaves to ensure that they were still legitimate virgins when they were sold.
The medical was also another female medical practitioner in ancient Rome. Theofanidis and Sapountzi-Krepia (2015) argue that i t is challenging for one to clearly make a distinction between the role of the midwife and that of the medicae. Notably, the medical played a similar position to the former. Nonetheless, these individuals not only specialized in gynecology, but obstetric work, and other therapeutic activities as well, while the midwives specialized just in gynecology. As free women, the medicae had a robust social standing and earned handsomely. On the contrary, midwives have freed slaves who had been granted freedom by their masters but still belonged to the lowest social class in society ( Theofanidis & Sapountzi-Krepia, 2015) . The former statement explains why the midwives are depicted negatively, for instance, as unskilled, drunkards, and superstitious in literary texts. They often faced vast accusations such as child trafficking, and facilitating banned abortions, despite the critical role they played in promoting women’s reproductive health.
The final role that women played in medicine was that of the iatromea. The iatromea was a profession that combined both the functions of the midwives and the medicae. The specialists had a vast knowledge of these two areas of medicine (Crystal, 2014). It is critical to note that women who performed any of the previously mentioned roles received extensive training even though it was not scientific. Furthermore, aside from reproductive health, women tended to the wounds of the injured during the war since men were actively engaged in it and could not fend for themselves. Women, therefore, played a vital role in health promotion.
The early women of the role had roles that are similar to those assigned to women in most ancient societies. Women were considered subordinates to men in a male-dominated community. Their freedom lay in the hands of men, and their core responsibility was to give rise to legitimate male heirs to continue their father’s legacy. Apart from child-rearing and nurturing, Roman women also acted as prostitutes, entertainers, midwives, and physicians, among others. Undeniably, they had no voice, no right to freedom, and were restricted from participating in public affairs. The early Roman woman was generally oppressed by the gender roles dictated by her society.
References
Crystal, P., (2014). Women in Ancient Rome. Amberley Publishing , 1445643766, 9781445643762.
Hemelrijk, E., (2013). Women and the Roman city in the Latin West. IDC Publishers, ISBN 978- 04-25594-4.
MacLachlan, B., (2013). Women in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook. Blooms Bury .
Pomeroy, B., S., (2014). Women’s History and Ancient History. The University of North Carolina Press.
Rey, S., & Rothstein, M. (2015). Roman Tears and their Impact: A Question of Gender? Clio , (1), 243-264.
Theofanidis, D., & Sapountzi-Krepia, D. (2015). Nursing and caring: An historical overview from ancient Greek tradition to modern times. International Journal of Caring Sciences , 8 (3), 791.
Zager, I. (2014). The political role of women of the Roman elite, with particular attention to the autonomy and influence of the Julio-Claudian women, 44BCE to CE68 (Doctoral dissertation).
