Effects of Radiation: Safety Rules Free Essay Example

The atom is the smallest fundamental unit of matter which consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. The protons (P+) are positively charged particles while the neutrons are electrically neutral particles within the core of the atom. Outside the nucleus surrounding it are the electrons which are negatively charged particles of the molecule. The electrons surround the nucleus and are bound to it in orbits by the magnetic force. Atoms are classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the outer orbits of the molecule. Molecules are classified according to their atomic and mass numbers. The nuclear number denoted as Z is the total number of the protons found in the nucleus of the atom. The atomic number is very vital as it is what determines the chemical element of the atom such as hydrogen that as 1 proton, 1H. On the other hand, the mass number of an atom is the sum of the protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom.

Atoms with the same number of protons and electrons are referred to as electrically neutral atoms. The molecules with a larger number of protons to the number of electrons are called cations (positively charged atom).

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Isotopes and nuclides are given notations depending on two methods; in the first method, the element is abbreviated followed by a hyphen then the protons and neutrons number in the nucleus, for example, H-1 for hydrogen. The second known as isotopic notation involves both the mass number and atomic number written as superscript and subscript respectively before the abbreviation of the atom. For example,

Isotopes are elements that have a different number of neutrons but a similar number of protons in the molecule. For instance, hydrogen has three isotopes, hydrogen, tritium and also deuterium. This differing numbers between neutrons and protons in the nucleus cause a difference in charge and hence sometimes the atoms with different numbers of neutrons can be radioactive. Due to nuclear instability, to balance between the neutron and proton ratio, the isotope will emit radiation to have stability between the proton and neutron. These isotopes are referred to as radioisotopes and undergo radioactive decay.

All isotopes act similar to the element due to having the same atomic number but differ in the nucleus due to different nuclear properties. The chart of nuclides is a map of all the radioisotopes elements organized by their behaviors. The coloring in the inner region depicts the features of nuclides listed like the half-life. The central lines show the more stable elements and the outside area the less stable elements.

History of radiation

Wilhelm Roentgen discovered radiation during an experiment with a vacuum and a tube where he noticed a fluorescent left on a coated glass. This discovery is what is called x-rays, and he further studied it and came up with the properties of the x-rays known to date. Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts lead to fogging of an exposed photographic plate. Later on, Henri curie only specific certain elements give out rays of energy. Ernest Rutherford discovered the alpha, beta and gamma ray particles during experiments.

Radiation is the emission of energetic particles from a radioactive source through a medium or space. The emissions travel outwards, but the intensity falls off with the increasing distance, time, and even shielding in the case of materials exposed to active radioisotopes. Ionizing and non-ionizing are the two distinctive types of radiation. Furthermore, Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy particles from radioactive material for stability to be reached.

Ionizing radiation Ionizing radiation is the absorption of the energy of the shortest wavelengths energies into materials that ionize molecules. This reaction involves high energies and small wavelengths; hence the ions are produced by bonds breakage. There are different types of ionizing radiations such as Alpha, Beta, Photon (X-ray and Gamma radiation) and Neutron radiations.

Alpha radiation, alpha symbol, is a type of ionizing radiation that has two neutrons and 2 protons driven out of an atomic nucleus of the helium atom that has a high charge and low velocity. Hence, the radiations emitted are not so penetrating. Image radium

A form of the beta radiation is the beta minus decay which consists of high energy and speed of electrons emitted by the radioactive nuclei. Beta minus involves an unstable nucleus that has more neutrons that have to undergo radioactive decay which requires conversion of neutrons to protons to remain in the nucleus. An electron and an antineutrino are emitted. This radiation has two types, X-ray and Gamma radiation. X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nuclei of the atoms while gamma rays are emitted inside its core. Gamma rays involve emission of alpha or beta particles and a daughter nucleus left in excited energy status. This energy status is emitted in the form of a gamma ray for the nucleus to be more stable by moving to a lower state. This is depicted in how cobalt-60 moves to nickel-60 which is more stable through radioactive decay.

Characteristic X-rays is just but one method of producing X-rays. A high energy electron interacts with a bound electron being ejected from an atom. The electron becomes scattered and displaced from its hole where an electron from a higher energy level fills the hole.

Neutron radiation consists of three neutrons that might be emitted from nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, radioactive decay, etc. these neutrons are released to form isotopes from the atoms.

Alpha shielding

This shielding is easily accomplished as the alpha particles are of low velocity and charge. The shielding can be achieved by use of a small piece of paper and cannot penetrate the skin or pass through the layer of clothing.

Beta shielding is achieved by use of 2-3mm thick plastic since they are not as fast as gamma rays neither as slow as the alpha particles. They are capable of penetrating the outer layer of clothing, and even the skin and deposits can be found beneath the surface. They cause dosing in the body. Photon shielding has particles that have high velocity. The X-ray and Gamma particles are the most penetrating and can, therefore, be shielded by use of lead or concrete. They are not as much of a cause of dose to the body compared to the Beta particles due to these properties. Neutron shielding is achieved by use of hydrogenous materials such as water. The neutrons emitted through nuclear fission or fusion is very highly reactive to the hydrogenous materials. Hence they are the reason for a very high dose in the body.

Radioactive decay

This decay is the process by which radioactive and unstable atoms emit energy to attain steadiness. These decays are random hence known as stochastic decays since one cannot predict when the decline will occur. Half-life is the time taken for half of the unstable nuclei in the radioisotope (radioactive material) to undergo radioactive decay. This is always constant for the entire life of the decline.

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Measuring radiation

The activity is the tempo at which the radioactive material’s nuclei decay to reach stability. The units of activity are Becquerel (Bq) and the curie (Ci). The Becquerel is equal to a disintegration of the transformation per second, and the curie is equal to 3.7*1010Bq.

Exposure(R) quantifies a radiation field in relation to charge per unit mass that is deposited in dry air at standard temperature and pressure. Exposure is measured in roentgen. Absorbed dose quantifies radiation interactions absorbed in the material per unit mass. It is measured in Gray (Gy). Dose equivalence is the relation of absorbed dose and its effects on the human tissues only. This brings us to the absorbed effective dose which is, equivalent dose multiplied by the tissue weighting factor.

Sources of radiation

There are many sources of radiation either natural or human-made. The significant sources of radiation are background radiation which accounts for almost 50%, medical radiation 48% and any other radiation about 2%. Background radiation involves the radiation that cannot be seen or even heard and is majorly composed of natural sources. The types of background radiation are external radiation from our surroundings and internal radiation from within us to the outside world from things ingested in our bodies. Medical radiation comes in to play when the machines that use the radioactive material for diagnosis during treatment of patients. Primary sources are, CT scans commonly known as computed tomography. The other sources are the X-rays used in imaging especially when locating broken bones. Other causes include consumer goods, such as being a passenger in a flight, cigarette smoking, nuclear power generation plants and also industrial radiography.

Radiation biology

Radiation mainly interacts with cells of the body and targets majorly the DNA found in the nucleus which is stored in the form of structures referred to as chromosomes. The cell contains the core where the DNA is located and also the cytoplasm. Cell death occurs when the nucleus is exposed to radiation particles. During the cellular death, the radiation particles cause a break in the double strand of the DNA where the broken ends mend them, rejoin with any other thing, rejoin incorrectly.

Linear transfer of energy occurs when energy is absorbed by the tissue. This is high if it is from neutrons or alpha particles and low if from the beta and gamma particles as well as the X-rays. The membranes are more sensitive to radioactive material depending on mitosis, long dividing future of stem cells.

Effects of radiation

Non-stochastic effects where the threshold is below the level they occur and the enormity of the outcome is directly related to the size of the dose. This effect comes about when an enormous dose of radiation is established in a short time which is often apparent within days or even sometimes hours. Examples are erythema which is the condition where the skin reddens, tissue and skin burns, the formation of cataracts, sterility and also death in some cases. On the other hand, stochastic effects that arise by chance consist principally of cancer and even some results from genetics. These effects show up after years of exposure when the dose increases. The effect of most concern here is cancer where the cancer risks are high when the radiation effects are high. A linear threshold model is used to estimate the biological effects in the long term, and the linear threshold is used to determine the organic defects that have occurred over a long time. Linear quadratic model estimates the damages caused by ionizing radiation when a complex function is assumed. The hormesis gives exposure to radiation above the natural background level. Others are the spinner model.

Radiation safety office

The main components of UML radiation safety: the radiation safety office, safety committee, authorized users of radioactive materials and emitting devices and radiation workers. The methods of monitoring radiation involve assessing of personnel exposed or at risk of exposure to radiation by use of tools such as fill badges, ring badges, etc.

Safety rules

Form the radiation office to arrange for its pick up; the waste should be well stored and identified.

The UML safety office controls most of the things so that the safety of the equipment and the personnel l is maintained and kept at a level that will not harm others. The necessary procedures are followed so that the person is well protected from gamma, alpha to even other radioactive elements. Maintenance of ALARA is critical especially when it comes to personal equipment. Time spent near the material, distance and the shielding present are all factors that are put into consideration. The apparatus includes gloves, lab coats, boots all of which are shielded to some extent.

Radiation is measured using devices such as survey meters, ion chambers, personal dosimetry all of which are employed into the function at UML to detect radiation. These conditions are in line with the ALARA’s working principle which states that radiation exposure should be reduced to as minimum as possible by using proper radiation protection methods. UML maintains ALARA by training, survey, shielding, dosimetry, and shielding design.

Radiation effects on pregnancy

We are all exposed to radiation daily. The body comes into contact with emissions often and some of the sources of this radiation are natural sources involving both the ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Sun's rays, microwaves, X-rays are all different classes of radiation n sources that emit particles such as gamma rays which are responsible for emission. Our bodies can handle these radiations, but they, however, become unbearable when the levels go up and might cause severe harm to the population. This occurs during emergencies, accidents in the power plants of nuclear energy and also more significant and more prolonged exposure to radiation levels such as radiotherapy. The most vulnerable population to radioactive material are the pregnant women in the society especially if they visit the hospital frequently for diagnostic checkups. Radiation exposure can cause defects in the growth of the fetus during pregnancy. The particles emitted during ionizing radiation affect the embryo and fetus and can create different defects. Depending on the radiation levels, fertility is majorly influenced by exposure to radioactive material. These effects sometimes may cause deadly outcomes such as miscarriages. The stages in which the embryo or fetus may be affected by the radiation are the first stage known as the pre-implantation stage, organogenesis stage and also the fetal development stage. The pre-implantation stage is nine days after the conception of the fertilized egg has been done. This is the time the embryo takes after fertilization to attach itself to the uterine walls. This stage is the most sensitive to radiation in this embryo development. This is the stage where the pregnant lady should be cautious not to be exposed to continuous radiation that is of enormous values that might cause severe defects in the body of the embryo. If not well handled this stage can lead to miscarriages or severe congenital disabilities. In a study carried out, it was shown that 200 Rad dose presented to mouse embryos killed the embryos. The second stage of pregnancy that has risks of radiation is the organogenesis stage that mainly starts after 10 days of conception to about 50days. Congenital disabilities may occur if the embryo is exposed to radiation. In this stage, just over 25rad produces effects that cannot be traced. A dose of 100 Rad is capable of accusing growth retardation temporarily. The regular growth shortcoming associated with this section is the microcephaly that is characterized by a small head, microphthalmia whose dominant feature is having small eyes as compared to normal and also cerebral hypoplasia which is characterized by the underdevelopment of both the brain and the entire nervous system. The third stage is the fetal growth stage. This is the stage where the fetus is just about 51 days to full term. Radiation effects in this section may lead to the growth of small organs in the body of the fetus. Moreover, the level of depression experienced in the ninth week of the baby is directly related to the dose received by the recipient. There is a possibility of permanent retardation in this stage if the exposure to radiation is above 100 Rad. Radiation extensively affects the development of the brain of a child. This mostly happened during the period between 8 to 15 weeks into the gestation period. As per research carried out, the average loss of the intelligent quotient(IQ) ranges from about b25 to 31 points per the Gy. The threat for serious mental retardation is about 40% per 100 Rads above 0.1 of the Gy which is 10 Rads. The central nervous system also experiences similar effects as seen in the 8-15 week gestation period. However, the nervous system is not as sensitive during the 16th to 25th week. At this stage, mental retardation is at a risk of 9% and the IQ loss is at 13 to 21 points per 10 Rads. Female workers are encouraged to declare their pregnancies to the respective authorities in their places of work for those who work in radioactive environments. This makes it possible for their roles to be changed to keep the lady and the baby safe. Besides, before any health check is conducted to the pregnant lady, the lady should inform the doctor be it a dentist or any other doctor. This is important as the doctor will be able to gauge the effectiveness of carrying out the tests then or inform the lady to wait until birth. The tests are however safe to be conducted such as the X-rays are safe but only on the regions not exposing the belly of the mother. Depending on the urgency, the tests can be shifted or modified to suit the patient without harming the fetus. If the pregnant lady is exposed to radiation, the guidelines for the centers for disease and prevention are followed. The guidelines involve ensuring you are safe from exposure and locking one’s self inside the window and doors inclusive. If these considerations are not met, adverse effects as have been mentioned above such as miscarriages, poor brain development, and birth defects are all as a result of the radiation on the fetus and the mother. The exposure to big amounts of radiation is equated to about 500 x-rays on the chest of which one can barely survive well. This is a case that happened during the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing. Larger exposures to extremely large amounts of radiation can lead to radiation sickness which is characterized by vomiting, fever, fatigue and also the loss of hair.

Conclusion

The radiation effects on pregnancy can be severe at most times hence need to be checked on and hindered at all costs for a viable offspring to be obtained. Radiotherapy, CT scans, X-rays should not be used on pregnant women unless they are required in a life-saving situation. If conducted, they should be done in a safe, cautious and careful manner so as not to do any harm to the offspring. The sensitivity of the fetus is highly dependent on the dose it receives and the protection from the mother’s abdomen.

References

Domenech, H. (2016). Basic Quantities and Units in Radiation Safety. Radiation Safety , 39-54. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42671-6_4