After the terrorist attacks that took place on September 11, 2001, the responsibilities and f unctions were expanded to include homeland security functions. Also, they are required to act as the first line of defense when preventing terrorism, a key role in recovery operations, and as the first responders when incidents occur. Studies reveal that all police agencies have undertaken various steps in preparations for the homeland security functions such as taking part in homeland security training, updating all mutual aid programs, and forming special units. As a method of showing support to the police agencies, the federal government has offered external grants. For instance, the Department of Homeland Security granted the law enforcement agencies over $1.3 billion in preparedness efforts (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). The essay will review the article: Homeland Security Risk and Preparedness in Police Agencies. The paper will then evaluate the weaknesses and strengths of each section of the article such as the methods, results, discussion, and then analyze the importance of the research.
Despite the improved emphasis on homeland security, there is a considerable variation in the levels of preparedness across different agencies. Researchers have tried to account for the variations by using the contingency theory framework that argues that organizations react rationally to different external environmental issues so that they can efficiently meet their goals. For instance, police agencies that face higher levels of risks due to external contingencies are highly likely to make adjustments that will improve their preparedness. Different studies have shown a close relationship between homeland security activities and risk. Nevertheless, the studies are limited in their capacity to measure risks. Most government organizations often use the probabilistic risk assessment model. The model comprises of three main components: threat, vulnerabilities, and consequences (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). Threats evaluate the probability of a risk occurring while vulnerabilities evaluate the targets. On the other hand, consequences evaluate the likely personal and physical harm that may occur. The current research often disproportionately examines threats by evaluating the subjective risk p erceptions of the particular organizational respondent. However, the approach has largely ignored how actual consequences and vulnerabilities influence the organization's preparedness efforts. Also, in the few occurrences where the impact and vulnerabilities were measured, they focused on the built environment despite the fact that the social vulnerability may also be salient. Furthermore, the preparedness studies do not measure the results or outcomes as a major determinant of some police practices. To achieve a comprehensive study of the impact of risks, researchers must evaluate the model not only according to the threat probabilities but also the consequences and vulnerabilities (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). The article seeks to offer a better assessment of the current risk preparedness relationship by analyzing the impact of consequences, threat perceptions, social vulnerabilities, and physical vulnerabilities.
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Evaluation of Text
Introduction
The introduction has various strengths. It explains the importance and role of the police in implementing their homeland security functions and importance of the study. It also indicates that the main responsibility of policing is homeland security and that the police should prepare all their agencies for homeland security occurrences. The two authors, Giblins and Haynes, have two main objectives in the article. They desire to evaluate the ability of law enforcement agencies to influence their practices through real risk factors while providing insight regarding measurement of risk. Besides, it also explains the role of the Department of Homeland Security in offering grants to the police to assist in the preparation efforts (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). One of the key aspects of managing homeland security incidences is preparedness. Some of the incidences are unpredictable and target innocent civilians by surprise. The introduction emphasizes the need to develop an effective disaster response model that can achieve better outcomes than the probabilistic risk assessment model. Also, the introduction gives a detailed analysis of objectives of the article such as providing a better assessment of the current risk preparedness relationship by analyzing the impact of consequences, threat perceptions, social vulnerabilities, and physical vulnerabilities. The introduction does not fully explain the flaws of the probabilistic risk assessment model.
Methods
One of the advantages of the study are that it was carried out on 350 law enforcement agencies according to data collected in 2011. The survey offers key indicators of the perceived risks of terrorist incidents and the level of preparedness. The methods are valid for the study because they allow an evaluation of the relationship between the level of preparedness and risks: objective and subjective risks. Also, the sample frame was created using the Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies that was carried out in 2004 to identify the law enforcement population (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). The information is detailed and can easily be duplicated from the data and information provided. The sample selection is adequate because they used the municipal law enforcement agency that covers over 78% of the department. About 9700 agencies fitted the criteria and were used in the analysis. Furthermore, more than 50% of the small agencies are located in metropolitan areas. Moreover, the sequence of methods is pertinent and clear. It indicates and explains the processes used in collecting and evaluating data. However, the methods are not detailed. They do not show the calculations and only show the results.
Results
The results indicate a consistent relationship between the level of preparedness and perceived risk within the law enforcement agencies. The tables show data that corresponds accurately with their titles and content. The results of the study correlate with one of the objectives of the study: To find the relation between perceived risks and the level of preparedness. Perceived risks are often used to measure the overall organizational risk although they only represents the views of only one organizational respondent (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). The study uses various regression models to evaluate the relationship between the level of preparedness and perceived risks. There are no discrepancies between the results of the study and the context. Population size may also affect the level of preparedness. As the population grows, the need for preparedness increases.
The results reveal the intentions of the study. The article intended to offer a better assessment of the current risk preparedness relationship by analyzing the impact of consequences, threat perceptions, social vulnerabilities, and physical vulnerabilities. However, actual risk factors did not significantly predict the level of preparedness of homeland security agencies. The results indicated that perceived and objective risks do not work simultaneously to affect the level of preparedness. On the other hand, the results suggested that objective factors may indirectly affect the level of preparedness by influencing the perceptions of risk (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). The representation of data is detailed and well labeled. However, they do not show the formulas used when calculating the results indicated in the table. Also, they do not accurately explain the use of Stata Statistical software that they used to carry out a path analysis that confirmed the relationship between population size and perceived risk.
Discussion
The study evaluates the importance of the police functions in homeland security efforts. Homeland security may be the main responsibility of policing, and it is one of the reasons why the Department of Homeland Security has taken various steps to prepare the police for homeland security incidents. Various agencies and departments have proposed and written emergency response plans. Also, various law enforcement agencies have been trained for homeland security response. Furthermore, the police have created units or divisions that will handle homeland security issues. Also, local police agencies have are dependent on state police agencies when training units that are related to homeland security (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). Homeland security policing tactics are implemented by various law enforcement agencies across the nation. Despite the fact that the level of preparedness is different, the Department of Homeland Security intends to ensure that all agencies are equally prepared.
The relationship between the perceived risks and preparedness of homeland security has received adequate support in the various literature. Through the contingency theory approach, most organizations have taken steps to prepare for various risks posed by homeland security incidents. The study showed the level of preparedness was highly affected by the level of threat or the risk of some terrorist incidents. Also, objective factors such as consequences and vulnerabilities do not affect the level of preparedness. The discussion mainly analyzes the results and is supported by the literature. The discussion also offers other suggestions. For instance, the objective risk factors may not be significant factors that influence organizational performance. The discussion provides other research probabilities. For instance, it suggests that the objective risk factors may have some influence on organizational performance. On the other hand, the discussion explains some of its weaknesses. For instance, the study has not explained why the perceived risk is a key indicator of the level of preparedness. Also, it does not explain the relationship between perceived risks and factors such as the actual risk of victimization and fear of victimization.
Overview
All disasters take place at a local level. Therefore, all law enforcement agencies should plan and prepare for any homeland security incidences. The preparations always involve taking corrective action, planning, evaluating, organizing, exercising, training, and equipping. Disasters and emergencies come in various forms ranging from flooding to arson to terrorism. If the law enforcement agencies are less prepared, it may magnify the severity of the situation. A small occurrence such as leaking gas pipe may appear simple, but if no one knows where to shut it off, it may pose serious challenges if it explodes. Some of the aspects of a good emergency plan include prevention, recovery, preparedness, and response. Prevention involves having a disaster management plan, ways of minimizing the impact, and ways of communicating to the affected parties (Sylves, 2014). Preparedness means that all the affected people are aware of their responsibilities when a disaster occurs. The response includes putting the disaster plan into action while recovery includes the actions taken after the disaster so that the society is back into working order.
Planning and preparedness allow the law enforcement agencies to manage the life cycle of all potential crises. Operational and strategic planning indicates priorities, shows the capability requirements and the levels of performance. It also allows the stakeholders to evaluate and learn their roles while suggesting standards of measuring their capabilities. A proper model offers guiding principles that allow all stakeholders to plan and prepare while offering a unified approach to emergencies and disasters ranging from large catastrophes to small incidents. There is a significant variation in the levels of preparedness across different agencies. Therefore, law enforcement agencies should come up with an efficient model that will allow them to have a unified approach to emergencies and disaster (Sylves, 2014). Proper planning prevents excessive damage, is less costly, and may save many lives. The plan should also include how law enforcement agencies will work with volunteers to mitigate damage or fall out during the response and recovery stages.
Conclusion
The essay evaluate the weaknesses and strengths of each section of the article such as the methods, results, discussion, and then analyze the importance of the research. Despite the improved emphasis on homeland security, there is a considerable variation in the levels of preparedness across different agencies. The current research often disproportionately examines threats by evaluating the subjective risk perceptions of the particular organizational respondent. Homeland security may be the main responsibility of policing, and it is one of the reasons why the Department of Homeland Security has taken various steps to prepare the police for homeland security incidents. The relationship between the perceived risks and preparedness of homeland security has received adequate support in the various literature. All law enforcement agencies should plan and prepare for any homeland security incidences. The preparations always involve taking corrective action, planning, evaluating, organizing, exercising, training, and equipping (Sylves, 2014).
One of the main responsibilities of the government is to ensure the security and safety of American citizens. It is a complicated task because globalization has exposed the country to various security threats such as terrorism. All the law enforcement agencies should have emergency plans for homeland security incidents. Various studies were carried out to evaluate the relationship between subjective and objective risks against the level of preparedness of various law enforcement agencies (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). The essay explains the finding of a survey carried out by law enforcement agencies. Emergency situations unite all law enforcement agencies to work towards controlling the situation. The paper indicates that a common approach or understanding is essential in managing emergency situations or disasters. The researchers wanted to establish the relationship between risk mitigation factors and perceived risks. The terrorist attacks in the country indicated that the police required some reforms.
As a way of reforming the law enforcement agencies, the Department of Homeland security implemented various programs. Some of the methods included participating in additional training, mutual aid agreements, and creating specialized units. The federal government has a lead role in assisting law enforcement agencies to achieve preparedness. There are notable efforts aimed at creating a qualified police workforce. Regardless of the consistent efforts of the federal government, there have been significant variations in the levels of preparedness. The variations have been closely linked with perceived risks. Through the contingency framework, scholars believe that all organizations respond rationally to most external environment factors (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). For instance, terrorists are more likely to attack places that have high populations so that they can maximize their outcomes. Therefore, the level of preparedness in areas with high populations is likely to be higher than in regions with small populations.
In response to the perceived risks, the local police departments often work with state police agencies for specialized services and training regarding homeland security. The topic is essential but the authors, Haynes and Giblin, have not fully explained their thesis statement. The introduction explained excellently the issues that influenced their studies. However, when readers approach the methods, results, and discussions, the authors introduce other issues that were not mentioned in the introduction. For instance, in the introduction, they proposed that the research was only limited to measuring risk but the methodology and discussions focus on single entities instead of multiple entities. Also, the research was carried out by several other researchers and does not offer new information. The study appears to confirm or explain the works of other researchers. The methodology and research do not show the formulas used in the research. The discussion may explain the results, but a larger portion of the section uses the works of other researchers to support the authors' views.
Moreover, the research is highly dependent on sample frames that were developed in 2004, and the outcomes of government statistics carried out in 2011. The authors simply used already existing data. If they could have used different statistics, perhaps they could have achieved more accurate or different results from other similar studies. All in all, the review evaluates the research carried out by Haynes and Giblin that was aimed at evaluating the level of preparedness of law enforcement agencies when addressing homeland security incidents. It has a strong introduction, but its discussion was merely a restatement of the results and findings from other similar studies. Nevertheless, the article addresses some issues that should be addressed by the government. For instance, there should be a unified approach to disasters or emergencies (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). Also, the variance in the level of preparedness is dependent on perceived risks.
References
Haddow, G., Bullock, J., & Coppola, D. P. (2017). Introduction to emergency management . Butterworth-Heinemann.
Haynes, M. R., & Giblin, M. J. (2014, March). Homeland security risk and preparedness in police agencies: The insignificance of actual risk factors. Police Quarterly, 17(1), 30-53. doi:10.1177/1098611114526017
Sylves, R. (2014). Disaster policy and politics: Emergency management and homeland security . CQ Press.
