There is a long-standing consensus in anthropological literature and other disciplines that drinking and eating are central to human identity. Food offers an important revelation about the interconnection between nature and culture. Thus, culinary systems offer a basis for classification, differentiation and ordering along cultural grounds (Jenner et al., 2007). Thanks to these systems, rules about production, preparation and consumption of certain foods are derived from different cultural groups and applied to its members. Claude Lévi-Strauss might have been right in pointing out that a society’s cuisine is its language and has special value in depicting and translating its social structures. Globalization, broadly understood, has had far-reaching consequences on the spread and interaction of cuisines. It might be difficult at face value to conclude that certain dishes are distinctively from one part of the world. This paper studies the special relevance of eating habits as cultural manifestations in an interconnected world and goes on to demonstrate how this has influenced aspects of global commerce more so international marketing.
In the recent past, it has come to be accepted that globalization is not only unilinear but also implies the transmission of cultural goods in multiple directions. This globalization dialectic has led to greater appreciation of regional cuisines and products. Local dishes are being prepared differently thanks to external influences and new products with national connotations from elsewhere are increasingly being embraced. Restaurants selling cuisines from different parts of the world have sprouted in virtually all major cities of the world. The more group diversity there is in an area, the more there appears to be a diversity of food cultures (Mccort & Mahorta, 2008). This suggests that various cuisines are culturally transmitted. Gastronomic tourism is on the rise with many destinations marketing themselves in a variety of ways to tap into this tourism market (Thoms, 2011). As will be demonstrated presently in the following case studies, the popularity of different cuisines is influenced by a variety of factors.
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Italian Cuisine
There can be no doubt as to the popularity of Italian food: the world seems to be in love with it. Perhaps one of the first things that come to mind when we talk about Italy is food. The spread of Italian cuisine across the world has been with a degree of missionary zeal and today is perhaps the most common option in menus across the world. Some analysts have thus spoken about the Italianization of world food which is most evident in continental European countries like Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, and Switzerland. Existing literature has emphasized the tremendous role played by stereotypes in the development of one’s view about cuisines and in shaping perceptions of others. In the case of Italian cuisine, the notion that it addresses health concerns (Italian cooking is an embodiment of extensive products like fish, vegetables, and fruits and it has low animal fat and meat) appears to be significant in its emergence to the world stage. It is therefore simply not a matter of taste and a question of globalization but a complicated bundle of factors that intricately intertwine with one another (Thoms, 2011).
Italian cuisine is more than paste and pasta which are found almost everywhere. There are numerous others foods especially those enjoyed by the Italian middle class that constitutes Italian cuisine. While the roots of this popularity can be seen from World War II, Italian cuisines have deeper and richer roots. Italy has historically been central to Christianity, numerous mythological stories and arts and therefore has a rich social history. As some have rightly pointed out, while Italy may have transformed into a nation-state in the 19 th century, it has had continuous nationhood that can be traced back to the Roman Empire. Its location meant a continuous stream of cultural interaction with Eastern Europe, Greece, Africa and the East. It was therefore for every intent and purposes at the center of throbbing civilizations that led to a vibrant social life spurred by interaction (Thoms, 2011). This invariably shaped her cuisine. Another important aspect of her location that led to the development of a variety of cuisines was her proximity to the Mediterranean Sea which meant an introduction to seafood. In such circumstances, a food culture that is both regional and national developed.
Traditional Italian cuisine was based on wheat, wine, and olive oil. Invaders from the north introduced butter, beer, game meat, lard, and milk. The institution of family, which is deeply embedded in Italian culture, was crucial in the entrenchment of these foods: family gatherings and festivities were characterized by enjoyment of a vast variety of dishes. As some have rightly observed, food has historically been an important uniting factor in Italian life (Thoms, 2011).
Italian cuisine would also develop further in the aftermath of World War II. Italy was one of the countries most devastated by the war with huge food shortages emerging that led to the massive malnutrition. Economic devastation undermined opportunities for food importation, and the county’s peasant population had to develop innovative ways of acquiring food. Vegetable consumption increased considerably and meat consumption fell to extremely low levels. Production of fresh fruits and citrus increased substantially, and corn vanished almost entirely from the cuisine. Another foodstuff that disappeared entirely from the cuisine was polenta which was a meal traditionally associated with the poor. The new products that were produced in this period to respond to these adverse circumstances have turned out to be popular in today’s world (Thoms, 2011). Therefore, Italian cuisine is a mixture of dishes that have endured over time and others that have developed in more recent times.
Pizza, perhaps the most famous of Italian dishes, emerged, according to the most popular accounts, as a round flat shaped bread preferred for its cheapness and ease to cook. Initially, few ingredients were added though it had distinguishing taste; sweet or sour depending on the desire for ease of digestion. One of the tales about pizza was that it was used during various social occasions such as marriages and would soon find its way even to the highest social classes and spread to the rest of the world. Today, even Japanese cuisines have pizza recipes that make adaptations to the original Italian cuisine such as Wafu Pasta typically with yuzukosho sauce (Thoms, 2011).
In the United States, pizza remains highly popular. Its increased popularity here can perhaps be attributed to the immigration into the United States of Italian and French peasants who were escaping the harsh economic realities in the 19 th century Europe. While Italian cuisine had fundamentally transformed cooking styles in much of Europe and more recently into other continents, it would be a gross simplification to suggest a national Italian cuisine or that Italy was unaffected by European cuisines themselves. Italy, until the 19 th century, was divided along political and even cultural lines. Of course, Italian dishes were pervasive in European royal court even in the 16 th century. However French cuisine became highly popular in the 17 th century and would impact significantly on Italian cuisine. In fact, some regions like southern Italy had essentially similar cuisines due to the nearly similar climate and resulting methods of agriculture which meant similar products. Also, Italy had very different dietary options across her social strata; what the poor consumed was by and large different with refinement taking place seemingly independent of either category though with a few notable interactions as with the case of pizza.
In brief, several factors stand out in the analysis of the transmission of Italian cuisine across the world which also helps explain the transmission of other cuisines. Italian migration has been crucially important in this development. Italian labor migration, largely soured by poverty, is well recorded across many historical phases. It was particularly significant in the late 18 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century. Subjected to foreign foods in places like Germany, they formed groups and employed their chefs who cooked food importations from Italy (Thoms, 2011). Where this was not possible, protests were held, and in certain instances remigration took place. To many Italian immigrants, sticking to Italian food was not just a matter of dietary concern but also adherence to traditions. Dieticians and medical professionals would soon take note of the ease of preparation and low consumption of meat. Subsequent research has noted the low meat, cheese, eggs and general animal fats present in Italian cuisine which is marked by high consumption of vegetables, bread and wine (Green et al., 2016). The dangers of the former that have been put forth by scientific research have increased the appeal of Italian cuisine.
The second major factor has been the emergence of gastronomic literature. As early as 1917, Italian gastronomic literature had appeared in Spain with later editions appearing in Sweden, Norway, Finland, France, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. Given the role of stereotypes in the spread of cuisines, the claim in this literature that Italian cuisine excelled more in taste and richness than French cuisine further increased its spread and appeal. After World War II when tremendous interest in food developed and literacy levels grew, books on Italian foods far outstripped those from other countries. Thus, Italian food was not only promoted directly but also served as a reference point for authors. More recent publications have sought to debunk the myth of humbleness of Italian food and that it is limited to pasta, tomato sauce and polenta (Thoms 2011) .
Indian Cuisine
The Indian subcontinent has a wide variety of cuisines that reflect its traditional and regional characteristics. Influences from central, Asian and middle eastern cultures have also impacted significantly on her cuisine. Unlike say Italian cuisine, Indian dishes are strongly influenced by religion more so Hindu as well as other cultural traditions and choices. The history of India has also been particularly relevant in shaping her cuisine. Spice trade between European countries and India has shaped Indian cuisine. To date, Indian species are revered in the world market. Foreign invasions and years of colonialism have also had a far-reaching impact. Potatoes, for instance, which are a staple in many regions of India were brought into the subcontinent by the Portuguese (Nandy, 2004).
Today, Indian cuisines are very popular in the international market. While it is possible to talk of Indian cuisines, it is important to underscore that many of them are regional cuisines or can be traced to certain regions. For instance, in Andaman and Nicobar islands, seafood dwarf other cuisines in popularity. In Assam, the Assamese cuisine is known for its reliance on indigenous styles and its limited spice use. It is however strong in flavored herbs and foods are largely made of vegetable with occasional instances of fish. In Chandigarh, which is the capital of Punjab province, the staple food is made of corn, wheat or glutenous flour which is often accompanied by cooked beans and vegetables (Green et al., 2016). These differences are however increasingly being diluted as Indians move to settle in different parts of the country.
Nonetheless, Indian cuisine remains common as global cuisine. Curry is increasingly being embraced and is no longer thought to give a bad tummy. Beyond curry, other species like black cardamom, star anise, Ajwain, Dhania, Dalchini and Tamarind seed are increasingly being sought in the global market. In the UK, the Middle East, China and Canada, curries, masala, kebabs, and biryani are common dishes in restaurants (Nandy, 2004). Some of these spices are well known for their health benefits further increasing their appeal to global consumers (Green et al., 2016). It is important to point out that while India has a tremendously rich cuisine, some products like animal beef are treated with suspicion due to adherence to stringent Hindu doctrine that requires mercy to be shown to animals, and as such, should not be eaten. Although a sizable portion of the Indian population cannot be termed vegetarian, the doctrine still has considerable force. It is also important to point out that a cow, according to Hindu scripture, is a sacred animal, and as such, beef is a forbidden product (Mccort & Mahorta, 2008).
However, such religious influences on various cuisines is not a peculiarity to the Indian society. Islamic doctrine explicitly forbids the consumption of pork or its products due to the belief that a pig is a dirty animal. Such a cultural prescription has enormous consequences on the global food trade given that there are over one billion Muslims in the world today. Statistics indicate that this number is set to grow tremendously in the coming years. In various other small communities around the world, dictates, largely of religious nature, on what can and cannot be consumed are well recorded. As will be demonstrated, these cultural idiosyncrasies have huge influences on international marketing of food products.
Impact on International Marketing
International marketing is simply marketing across boundaries of nations. It is a concern of virtually all organizations regardless of size and type as long as it operates beyond the boundaries of a single nation. Multinational organizations expend tremendous resource and energies in marketing since this is the primary means of reaching the intended consumers. One of the complexities of marketing is that it involves understanding the varying marketing environments which may, in significant ways, vary from domestic markets. Thus, the term environment encompasses a multiplicity of factors that include cultural, technological, political, competitive and legal influences. Wolf (2000) rightly observes that business environments have continued to evolve rapidly in response to globalization which brings with it an unprecedented competition. To this end, firms have to enter a diverse set of markets with the wherewithal to maintain their momentum and relative position in the market. In the food industry, culture remains an important area of market environment that organizations must be constantly awake to in order to maintain their position in the market (Mccort and Mahorta 2008) .
In marketing, cultures cannot be right or wrong; they can only be different. As the exposure to globalization has well demonstrated, consumers in the food industry have varying perceptions, attitudes, preferences, tastes and values. Consumer behavior in the food industry will tend to be different from the behavior of other industries. For instance, while consumers are averse to foreign products, they are more welcoming of different cuisines in the food industry, except in circumstances when there are deep cultural reasons such as those attributable to religious beliefs (Jenner et al., 2007). Therefore, marketing of beef products, for instance, India, has to take note of segments of the population that are more open to such cuisines.
The fact that certain foods are culturally proscribed in a certain country does not necessarily mean such cuisines cannot be sold. What is significant in such instances is to target portions of the population such as immigrants, foreigners, and tourists who then become the niche market. Such marketing is targeted to a specific population and in a manner that does not anger the mainstream population. This strategy has in fact been used by multinationals in the food industry to penetrate into previously inaccessible markets. Factors such as whether a society is culturally sensitive also impact marketing strategies. For instance, promotion cannot be done via television or radio in culturally sensitive societies. A better way to undertake such promotion would be to put up advertisements in specific locations where the target market is located.
Tourists, including domestic tourists, are part of the target market for global food chains in an otherwise hostile environment. Thousands of tourists return to destinations they know to enjoy familiar, tested and tried recipes. In countries like Italy and France, many tourists come to enjoy the unique cuisines found in the areas. The world tourism organization reports that thousands of tourists travel further afield in search of special and unique cuisines. Gastronomy has emerged as an indispensable component of tourism. Tourists are attracted to domestically produced cuisines especially amongst rural communities (Mccort & Mahorta, 2008). Therefore, while the domestic population may not embrace what is being offered by food chains, intensified movement whether in the form of tourism or otherwise ensures a market for seemingly unpopular commodities. A country like South Africa receives about 10 Million tourists annually. This serves as a huge market for businesses offering French, Indian, Italian or any other cuisines even without the participation of the local population. The marketing of these cuisines must, however, ensure sensitivity to local cultures (Jenner et al., 2007).
Culture also influences the way people hear and interpret marketing messages. Marketing messages even in the food industry must be put in a culturally sensitive manner while still retaining the originally intended message. Some advertisements, while not being intrinsically injurious, may be interpreted as derogatory in a particular cultural setting. For instance, portraying a Muslim enjoying a bottle of beer may send an unintended message in an Islamic country such as Sudan where such a commodity is considered ‘haram.’ Put simply, the type of food in a particular culture will have considerable bearing on the content of marketing.
Conclusion
It has been submitted here that different cultures tend to have different foods. In fact, the food in a particular community is an important indicator of its culture. Some cultures will embrace certain foods while others will be averse to them. It has also been seen that historical circumstances and geographical location have an important influence on food cultures. There have been alterations in food cultures across time and as communities interact with each other. The rich Italian cuisine, it has been seen, has been shaped by that country’s geographical location and interactions with the cultural systems in other countries. The appeal of cultural foods to outsiders, it has been argued, is influenced by multiple factors which include the stereotypical attitudes about the cuisine, levels of migration of the cultural group who act as transmission agents and existence of gastronomic literature amongst other factors.
The phenomenon of globalization has meant internationalization of various cultural cuisines. Tourists are often attracted by the special and unique cuisines in an area. Immigrants bring with them new cuisines that soon blend with domestic ones. This development, it is argued, has enormous implication on marketing strategies employed by companies. In such contexts, cultural sensitivity becomes particularly relevant to business success especially if there is outright opposition to particular cuisines for religious or other reasons. However, such opposition does not automatically dim the chances of that cuisine, since often, there is a sizable foreign population willing to embrace it. Caution, however, needs to be taken by food chains not to upset local sensitivities in their marketing strategies.
References
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Jenner, Steve, Brent Macnab, Donnel Briley, Richard Brislin, and Reg Worthley. "Cultural Change and Marketing." Jornal of Global Marketing , 2007: 161-172.
Mccort, Daniel John, and Naresh Mahorta. "Culture and Consumer Behavior: Toward an Understanding of Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior in International Marketing." Jornal of International Consumer Marketing , 2008: 91-127.
Nandy, Ashis. "The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes." South Asia Research , 2004.
Thoms, Ulrike. "From Migrant Food to Lifestyle Cooking: The Career of Italian Cuisine in Europe." European History Online , 2011.
