Scientific Management Theory
The theory was formulated by Frederick Taylor in 1880. It is a management theory that evaluates and synthesizes different workflows. The primary objective of the concept was to enhance economic efficiency such as labor productivity. The theory was one of the earliest attempts to utilize and apply science to management and engineering processes. Taylor developed the theory in the US from the 1880s to the 1890s during the industrial revolution, especially steel. The theory is at times referred to as Taylorism because the founder was called Frederick Winslow Taylor. The theory's peak of influence was in the 1910s because it was the most discussed management concept in the entire Europe including Russia ( Yadav, Sushil, & Sagar, 2014) . The concept allowed employers to increase the output of their employees. The theory had various limitations, and it began losing its influence because of syncretism and competition with complementary or opposing ideas. By 1930, the theory had become obsolete. However, some of its concepts are still significant in the modern day such as documentation, elimination of waste, standardization, and efficiency.
Organizational Development
The management theory was developed by Kurt Lewin. The theory focuses on studying successful organizational performance and change in the 1930s. The theory emerged from the study of human relations where psychologists found out that organizational processes and structures affect worker motivation and behavior. The theory expanded to focus on evaluating and aligning organizations with the complex and dynamic environments through organizational transformation, learning, and knowledge management of organizational values and norms. The key concepts in the organizational development theory include organizational strategies, organizational climate, and organizational culture. Organizational strategies explain how the company will evaluate progress, identify problems, negotiate, and plans action ( Bell, Kennebrew, & Blyden, 2015) . Organizational climate refers to the unique personality or mood of the business that includes beliefs and attitudes that affects the collective behaviors of employees. Organizational culture explains the behaviors, deeply seated norms, and values shared by employees. There are various limitations of the theory especially regarding its relevance in managing change in the modern-day organizations. The theory needs to be reinvented to accommodate emotions of employees, especially how the emerging changes may cause emotional trauma and adversely affect organizational performance.
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Hierarchy of Needs
The theory was proposed was Abraham Maslow in 1943. The management theory was published in 1954 in his book Motivation and Personality, and it provided a framework for employers to gain their employees’ trust. Maslow evaluated and extended the theory to include his observations regarding the innate curiosity of humans. It is a motivational concept and theory that includes five levels of human needs depicted as a pyramid. He believed that all people including employees are motivated to acquire or achieve certain needs although some needs or wants have precedence over others ( Bell, Kennebrew, & Blyden, 2015) .
The most basic human requirement is physical survival, and it is the first concept that affects human behavior. After the physiological needs are fulfilled, the next level keeps motivating the individual. The main limitation of the theory is its ranking. Maslow fails to explain the difference in the intellectual and social needs of collectivist and individualistic societies ( Yadav, Sushil, & Sagar, 2014) . The drives and needs of individualistic societies are self-centered, and self-actualization is the main attainment of self-improvement. On the other hand, collectivist societies, the needs of community and acceptance outweigh the needs for individuality and freedom.
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory Y and Theory X are management concepts that explain management and human motivation. They were initially presented by Douglas McGregor in 1957 but were developed throughout the 1960s. The two models represent the contrasting models describing work motivation used by leaders and managers in organizational development, human resource management, organizational communication, and organizational behavior. The two models are two opposing sets of ideas and assumptions regarding workforce motivation, and they form the foundation of the two contrasting management styles ( Tuczek, Castka, & Wakolbinger, 2018) . Theory X describes managers with a pessimistic view of their employees and that they naturally dislike work and are unmotivated. On the other hand, theory Y describes leaders or managers who have a positive view of their employees and they prefer participative and decentralized management. However, the theories have various limitations. Theory X fosters a distrustful and hostile atmosphere while theory Y is difficult to embrace and implement in reality. Furthermore, the two ideas cannot be used together.
Learning Organization
The management theory was formulated by Peter Senge and presented in 1990 in his book, The Fifth Discipline. The theory was developed after extensive research into what different organizations do to improve or build capacity. His research also tried to explain why some organizations were learning better than others. The theory set Senge to the front seat of modern day management thinkers formulated a management language that could be easily embraced and provided a vision of employment that was human and centered on a culture of learning. The main concepts of the model are the five learning disciplines: shared vision, systems thinking, mental models, team learning, and personal mastery. Also, the theory does not give attainable goals but a set of essential, useful, and desirable guiding principles and ideas for organizations and people to aspire towards ( Tuczek, Castka, & Wakolbinger, 2018) . The theory is more than just amassing immense knowledge how to use it effectively, manage it, grow through it, and apply it. However, the theory has limitations. It focuses on collective and individual learning at all organizational levels but fails to link the learning appropriately to the overall business strategic objectives.
References
Tuczek, F., Castka, P., & Wakolbinger, T. (2018). A review of management theories in the context of quality, environmental and social responsibility voluntary standards. Journal of Cleaner Production , 176 , 399-416.
Yadav, N., Sushil, & Sagar, M. (2014). Revisiting performance measurement and management: deriving linkages with strategic management theories. International Journal of Business Performance Management , 15 (2), 87-105.
Bell, R. L., Kennebrew, D., & Blyden, L. (2015). An increasing utility for the early management theories: An exploratory study.
