How to Work With Arguments and Non-Arguments

Arguments and non-arguments 

1. Real-world arguments and non-arguments 

(a) The First Real-Life Argument 

One of the real-life argument can be found in an article written by Hart-Landsberg, M. (2020, August 6) entitled, "We must challenge militarism in efforts to defund police." The author argues that federal spending is being squeezed out on programs to promote scientific research, transportation, housing, environmental protection, job training, education, and health. The non-militarized budget is smaller as compared to the militarized budget, which keeps growing each year since 1976. From the historical budget allocation, it is evident that the gap between the non-militarized and militarized budget has increased over the past years. 

The author asserts that militarism promotes police violence and racism against people of color and indigenous people in several forms. The federal budget militarization affects people's ability to address both ecological and social problems. The author adds that it is time to defund the Police and the military as part of national security re-imagination and utilization of the freed funds for different popular needs. 

The argument concludes that it is time to defund the Police and the military as part of national security re-imagination and utilization of the freed funds for different popular needs. 

The article is regarded as an argument since the writer mentions different justifications to make readers understand his firm position on the topic addressed. The author provides build-up reasoning and data to conclude their argument. 

Second Real-Life Argument 

The second argument is from the Press Release on "Defunding the Police Won't Solve Any Problems, Only Poses Extraordinary Risk to our Citizens." The article addresses U.S. Representative Greg Steube, who talks and votes against the Policing Act of 2020. Greg Steube defends his argument on why Police defunding might result in further problems. He states that defunding the Police poses a risky situation to the people who rely on protecting property and life, which are essential governmental services. The risk posed takes advantage of civil unrest. The article asserts that civil unrest is anarchy and is not constructive. The civil unrest does not consider the multiples of good police officers who ensure every person is safe. The mainstream media would not mention the tragic and sudden death of a black officer, but such officers cannot be forgotten in Florida either. For instance, Officer Julian Keen, a black officer who was laid to rest after being shot and killed by a criminal, found Keen, a police officer, in civilian clothes. 

The conclusion is that defunding the Police poses a risky situation to the people who rely on protecting property and life, which are essential governmental services. 

The article is an argument since the speaker has a stance on the topic under discussion and inspires the audience to side with them. Also, the article mentions circumstances that negate the concept of defunding the Police. 

(b) A Real-Life Explanation 

The real-life experience concerns an article entitled, "Defunding the Police Won't Solve Any Problems, Only Poses Extraordinary Risk to our Citizens" by the Press Release on U.S. Representative Steube. The discussion is about defunding the Police. What was being explained is that the law enforcement officers are targeted and ambushed. Due to the police profession's nature, their ability to obtain protective equipment and essential weapons is taken away. 

The speaker's sentiment on the police profession is not an argument but an explanation as it is a scenario. The speaker offers his reasoning on the occurrence of violence against police officers. 

Standardising and diagramming arguments 

2. 

Standardising 

“ 1 (Chimpanzees today are in danger of extinction); 2 (for with the spread of agriculture and forestry), 3 (their habitat and their lives are threatened), because 4 (their forests are cleared to make way for cultivation) and 5 (their food trees are poisoned to make space for timber trees). Moreover, since 6 (chimps are susceptible to all the infectious diseases of man), wherever 7 (their populations are near new human settlements) 8 (they are endangered by epidemics).” 

Diagramming the Argument 

3. Real-Life Arguments 

The First Argument 

The first argument is from the media on “These 12 Graphs Show Mask Mandates Do Nothing To Stop COVID” by Yinon Weiss. The argument is as follows: 

“ Masks dehumanize us, and ironically serve as a constant reminder that we should be afraid. People can now be spotted wearing masks while camping by themselves in the woods or on a solo sailing trip. They have become a cruel device on young children everywhere, kindergarten students covered by masks and isolated by Plexiglas, struggling to understand the social expressions of their peers. Face coverings are causing real harm to the American psyche, provide little to no medical benefit, and distract us from more important health policy issues.” 

Standardising 

"1 (Masks dehumanize us, and ironically serve as a constant reminder that we should be afraid). 2 (People can now be spotted wearing masks while camping by themselves in the woods or on a solo sailing trip). 3 (They have become a cruel device on young children everywhere, kindergarten students covered by masks and isolated by Plexiglas, struggling to understand the social expressions of their peers). 4 (Face coverings are causing real harm to the American psyche, provide little to no medical benefit), and 5 (distract us from more important health policy issues)." 

Diagramming the First Real-Life Argument 

The Second Argument 

The real-life experience is as follows: If human beings were particularly stingy and selfish then they will perceive how important it is to give to charities as compared to save for retirement. But have you heard of the case? Be honest. 

Standardising the argument 

1 (If human beings were particularly stingy and selfish then they will perceive how important it is to give to charities as compared to save for retirement). 2 (But have you heard of anyone who does that? Be honest.) 

Diagramming the argument 

Argument Evaluation 

4. Arguments from real life 

(a) Counter-considerations 

A counter-consideration is that which attempts to contradict or offer unfavorable inclination to the speaker's targeted inference. A real-life example is as follows: 

Some individuals assert that 1 (potato chips are a low-quality diet, prompting an increased junk diet). However, 2 (this is not true). Moreover, 3a (individuals love potato chips) as 3b (they are characterized by sufficient potassium). 4 (So people should eat potato chips at every event). 

1 (Other people assert that having food dispensers filled with junk food results in consuming increased levels of junk diets). 2 (Yet food dispensers offer significant support by keeping food and making it available). 3 (We should purchase food dispensers). 

The impact of the counter-consideration is that the arguer acknowledges that points are available against the conclusion made. This case's conclusion does not originate from the first argument, which asserts that potato chips are a low-quality diet. Instead, the conclusion supports consuming more potato chips and the support of having food dispensers. Hence, the impact of the conclusion is profound on the argument's weakness and strength. 

(b) Fallacies 

Example 1 

My neighbor argued that the COVID-19 pandemic would last for many years. It is either we succumb to the pandemic or adapt to the set health guidelines. It is prudent for people to wear masks, sanitize, and keep social distance than die. 

(i) The fallacy is False Dichotomy. (ii) The fallacy is committed when only two alternatives exist or two extremes occur for a given decision. False dichotomy entails either one option or the other but can have omission of choices. Therefore, from my neighbor's point of view, only two alternatives are available. It is either we die or follow health guidelines. The truth of the matter is that vaccination is another option. (iii) The argument is highly weakened since the conclusion does not rely on exhaustive premises. Only two alternatives form the conclusion. 

Example 2 

The area police officer said that his friend got infected with the COVID-19 when they went to purchase dinner at Domino's Pizza. Eateries are at risk of infection. Therefore, people should not buy foodstuffs anymore. 

(i) The fallacy is a hasty generalization. (ii) The fallacy is committed on the claim of prevailing evidence that is not substantiated. Essentially, one cannot claim and assert that an occurrence is true if they have a single or two pieces of evidence. The police officer's argument depends on one piece of evidence: their friend being infected while at Domino's Pizza. Then the police officer generalized hastily that people should buy foodstuffs anymore. (iii) The hasty generalization fallacy weakens the argument because the premises give no sufficient and logical evidence to anchor the conclusion. One particular piece of evidence does not make the conclusion valid. 

5. Standardisation and ARG argument evaluation 

(a) 

“ 3 (People who study history are wiser than those who do not). 1 (Studying history makes a person unlikely to repeat the mistakes of the past), and 2 (not repeating the mistakes of the past is a sign of wisdom). Since the primary 4a (aim of education is producing wisdom), 4b (all educational institutions should require the study of history).” 

Inserting “Thus” 

“ Studying history makes a person unlikely to repeat the mistakes of the past 

Not repeating the mistakes of the past is a sign of wisdom 

Thus, 

People who study history are wiser than those who do not 

The primary aim of education is producing wisdom 

Therefore, 

All educational institutions should require the study of history.” 

(b) ARG Method 

Acceptability 

Not repeating the mistakes of the past is a sign of wisdom 

People who study history 

The primary aim of education is producing wisdom 

Relevance 

All the mentioned premises are sufficient to form the conclusion. 

Grounds 

Given that all the premises are adequate, they are also acceptable. Therefore, the premises offer grounds for trusting the conclusion. 

From the argument, there is no counter-consideration. 

Counter-considerations 

6. 

(i) The pediatric researcher argues that secondhand smoke is a primary contributor to children's cavities compared to those who are not exposed to such smoke. 

(ii) The pediatric researcher justifies their claim by stating that the decrease of passive smoking is essential for combating multiple medical problems and enhancing children's dental health. "Reduction of passive smoking is important not only for the prevention of many medical problems, but also for the promotion of children's dental health…" 

(iii) (b) 

(iv) The counter-consideration is "…that at least one-quarter of children's cavities would be eliminated if they were not exposed to secondhand smoke" 

The relevance of the counter-consideration is that it is only imagination and may not be a solid occurrence. 

References 

Hart-Landsberg, M. (2020, August 6). We must challenge militarism in efforts to defund police. Street Roots . https://www.streetroots.org/news/2020/08/06/opinion-we-must-challenge-militarism-efforts-defund-police 

Press Release (2020, June 25). Defunding the Police Won't Solve Any Problems, Only Poses Extraordinary Risk to our Citizens. House.gov. https://steube.house.gov/media/press-releases/steube-defunding-police-wont-solve-any-problems-and-poses-extraordinary-risk 

Weiss, Y. (2020, October 29). These 12 Graphs Show Mask Mandates Do Nothing To Stop COVID. The Federalist. https://thefederalist.com/2020/10/29/these-12-graphs-show-mask-mandates-do-nothing-to-stop-covid/