Impact of Religion on Politics in the Teotihuacan Region of Mesoamerica

Alex, B. (2020). The Shrine of decapitated heads suggests violence against foreigners in ancient Mexico. Archaeology ,  8 (4).  https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg2122 

Alex’s article about the shrine of decapitated heads Teotihuacan aligns with Joyce & Barber's conclusion about religion as a source of political conflicts in Mesoamerica. In this article, Alex analyzes Teotihuacan, a vibrant Mesoamerican metropolis that thrived with diversity in cultural practices and religions. An examination of the region's artifacts demonstrates a metropolis that had over 100,000 dwellers with a flow of foreigners who promoted trade and offered their skilled labor in architecture and art. However, the Teotihuacan region experiences instability, setting in religious and political activities that leave behind a trail of violence and murders. The murders, as shown by the decapitated heads, have religious and political links. Before the political killings began, Alex demonstrates that religious rulers carried out mass sacrifices at sacred points such as the Teotihuacan's Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent. Victims of these sacrifices were captive warriors, locals, and immigrants. However, during the collapse of the Teotihuacan, religious practices influence political decisions during the mass offering sessions. Alex reports that sacrifices made during this time show that 70 percent of the victims were immigrants or foreigners offering skilled labor to the Teotihuacan's authority. The constitution of the victims is evidence that despite sacrifice having been a religious practice, it promoted political conflicts by allowing killings of immigrants and foreigners from neighboring communities and authorities. The strength of this source is the quantifiable data that it provides to demonstrate the influence of religion on political activities. This influence provides findings that answer my research question on the impact of religion on politics in Mesoamerica. Alex’s article is peer-reviewed and published in a renowned journal, making it a credible and reliable source. 

Cowgill, G. L. (1997). State and society at Teotihuacan, Mexico.  Annual Review of Anthropology ,  26 (4), 129-161.  https:// doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.129. 

Cowgill’s article introduces the state and society of Teotihuacan, Mexico. This introduction gives valuable background information about the history of this Mesoamerican region, which is valuable in the next stages of a study that explores the religion and politics of Teotihuacan. According to Cowgill, Teotihuacan was a vast prehistoric metropolis located in central Mexico. The region was thriving in its metropolis activities, despite being located in the semi-arid regions of Mexico. Teotihuacan sprouted in the first century BCE and grew rapidly during its initial stages. By 100s, the region covered over 20 square kilometers, with a population of over 80,000 locals and immigrants. The region had an influx of foreigners who offered skilled labor in art and architecture. Notable areas of development included religious structures, civic amenity, and materials of war. During the development period, Teotihuacan rulers were powerful and respected. They emphasized the importance of war by acquiring powerful tools and materials to protect their territory and affirm their stature. After the initial rapid growth in 100 BCE and 200 CE, Teotihuacan slowed down in its growth towards the 600s, and by the 700s, it started to fade. The decline came along with constraints that clawed the ruler's powers. Presumably, rulers began to serve elite interests, with political and religious factions emphasizing war and fertility deities. Religious wars were common at the final stages of the Teotihuacan. The wars were promoted by local leaders to exercise their political powers and also encouraged by religious leaders as part of their festivities. This is evidenced by symbols of sacred wars adored by the local elites. Cowgill’s article provides necessary background information that introduces Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica as my target study region. The information provides an understanding of the history of the Teotihuacan, which will enhance my understanding of the rise and fall of this empire and link them to its religious and political practices. The article is peer-reviewed and published in the Annual Review of Anthropology, making it credible and reliable. 

Froese, T., Gershenson, C., & Manzanilla, L. R. (2014). Can government be self-organized? A mathematical model of the collective social organization of ancient Teotihuacan, central Mexico.  PLoS ONE ,  9 (10), e109966.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109966 

Froese et al., in their article, “Can government be self-organized? A mathematical model of the collective social organization of ancient Teotihuacan, central Mexico,” carried out a study that demonstrated the high level of organization among the Teotihuacan. The authors illustrate that the Teotihuacan was among the first and largest civilizations in Mesoamerica and the ancient world. They also suggest that the region was a complex social hub controlled by powerful individuals. These rulers were presumably tapped from a lineage of elite individuals. Archeological data that is indicative of co-rulers is also vast despite several researchers suggesting that co-ruling was less practised due to the challenges faced by collective responsibilities. They believe that in such times when systems and rules were less elaborate, coalition governance was less likely to survive to form a thriving empire of Teotihuacan’s magnitude. In this article, the authors deploy a mathematical model that demonstrates widespread cooperation among the population of the Teotihuacan. The article demonstrates that decisions in this region were organized into widely acceptable configurations, despite frequent self-optimization modifications from selfish rulers. The widespread cooperation is related to theories that suggest community-wide rituals as a binding factor among the Teotihuacan's inhabitants. These rituals were mostly religious, providing a link between religious practices and the cooperation and stability of the government. The study's findings demonstrate the hypothesis that ancient governments in Mesoamerica were self-organized, but religion played a critical role in promoting cooperation. Without a strong belief in religious rituals, cooperation in governance and leadership would have been a challenge for the prosperity of Teotihuacan. The strength of this article is the use of a modern scientific model to demonstrate a historical concept. The mathematical model demonstrates the widespread cooperation that sustained governance in Teotihuacan. The cooperation is linked to religious rituals and provides vital information that demonstrates the impact of religion on politics. The link is an essential finding that answers my research question. This article is peer-reviewed and published in a journal, thus a reliable source. 

Hirth, K. G., Carballo, D. M., & Arroyo, B. (2020). Power, politics, and governance at Teotihuacan. In  Teotihuacan: The World Beyond the City  (pp. 57-96). Dumbarton Oaks Research Library & Collection.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340900102_Power_Politics_and_Governance_at_Teotihuacan 

The third chapter in Teotihuacan: The World Beyond the City elaborates on power, politics, and governance of the Teotihuacan region. Carballo identifies three goals for this chapter: to review the political organization, examine political evolution, and analyze different cases on the proposed range of polities in the Teotihuacan region. These three objectives enable Carballo to identify different political structures and governance and place them in different periodic contexts. Carballo acknowledged that, similar to other states in different regions of the world, the politics and governance of Teotihuacan were not static. Therefore, proposals to identify these structures must also place them in a time frame under which they were practised. A common perspective about Teotihuacan’s organization was that natives of this region conceptualized it on religious backgrounds by viewing it as a mythical creation point. An analysis of the art and industrial achievements of the region also suggests an organization that was ruled following the needs and trends of its population. However, Carballo believes the classic and post-classic periods show contrasting political organizations. He believed that the classic period was more theocratic, while the post-classic period was militaristic. Also, there are different theories on the type of polity for these regions. While some believe it was a capital city, Carballo notes that different researchers suggest that Teotihuacan may have been a city-state, a commercial center, a territorial center, or an empire. There are also two disputes about rulers. Both single ruler and co-rule systems being proposed as possible structures. This book chapter provides the political structure of my target research area, which is vital background information before religious links are established to answer my research question. The strength of this book is its vast sources. It illustrates political structures proposed by several researchers and links them to different periods in the empire's existence. The book is a credible source, as demonstrated by its use in academic libraries. 

Joyce, A. A., & Barber, S. B. (2015). Ensoulment, entrapment, and political centralization.  Current Anthropology ,  56 (6), 819-847.  https://doi.org/10.1086/683998 

In “Ensoulment, Entrapment, and Political Centralization," Joyce & Barber are more specific in their exploration of religion in Mesoamerica. The two authors examine the interplay between religion and politics and specify the analysis period as the later Formative stage. Also, the authors' analysis specifically compares two regions in southern Mexico; the Valley of Oaxaca and the Lower Río Verde Valley. The histories of these two regions show contradicting trends in religious practice that shaped politics in different ways. The authors indicate that in the Valley of Oaxaca, religion had positive impacts on the region's politics. It promoted practices and systems that ensured political stability. Religions also facilitated political centralization through authority and geographical accessibility. This was achieved by using religious shrines as political offices and the empowerment of religious leaders to carry out duties related to politics and public service. In contrast, religion in the lower Verde worked against systems that promoted centrality. In this region, religion discouraged multi-community authority by championing the independence of each community. These constraints were fostered through offerings and the use of public buildings in a secluded protocol that discouraged centrality. Joyce & Barber demonstrate that religion was not always a unifying factor. Social and political changes were, in some regions, at loggerheads with religion, causing tension and conflicts between communities and authorities. The comparative study introduces a new consideration about the adverse impacts of religion on politics. This approach deviates from the majority of researchers who have empathized on the positive impacts of religion on the politics of Mesoamerican regions. This source provides evidence on two specific regions of Mesoamerica to demonstrate that religion had positive and adverse impacts on politics in Mesoamerica. This information answers my research question on the impact of religion on politics. The article is peer-reviewed and published in Current Anthropology, a renowned journal, making it credible and reliable. 

Mandell, E. (2009). Review of "The Teotihuacan trinity: The sociopolitical structure of an ancient Mesoamerican city" by Annabeth Headrick.  College Art Association Reviews .  https://doi.org/10.3202/caa.reviews.2009.106 

In the review of "The Teotihuacan trinity," an article that Annabeth Headrick originally wrote, Mandell explains the sociopolitical structure of Teotihuacan in what is described as a trinity. Before explaining the trinity of the structure, Mendell explores the physical structures of the region, which are also symbolic. The Teotihuacan architectural design was a trinity organized by a three-mile-long central path. The path was named the Avenue of the Dead that stretched up to a Pyramid of the Moon. There were numerous temples aligned on the path with evidence of massive ritual festivities. The temples symbolized the rich religious background of the Teotihuacan inhabitants. The numerous temples indicate the large population that made the region thrive in its activities and warfare. Mandell acknowledges that Annabeth Headrick’s work is groundbreaking since several other researchers had made unsuccessful attempts to explain this ancient population's religious and political structure. By analyzing the architecture and art from this region, Headrick challenges the notion from previous researchers that Teotihuacan was peaceful in its religious and political activities. She disputes the perceived solidarity by proposing a trinity of social groups that engaged in conflicts and wars to lead the Teotihuacan region. The three parties were the rulers, the military heads, and lineage heads. The powerful rulers, in most cases, sought the help of the military to stay in power and push away the lineage heads who relied on hereditary kingship. These conflicts promoted warfare and murders, which were also practised by Shamanism. This article provides architectural evidence that religion influenced politics and demonstrates this using the trinity concept. The strength of this article is the use of physical evidence to demonstrate religion's influence on politics. The demonstration provides solutions to my research question that explores the impact of religion on politics in Teotihuacan. The article is peer-reviewed and published in the College Art Association Reviews, making it credible and reliable. 

Moises, A. (2012). Religion in Mesoamerica.  International Journal of Humanities and Social Science ,  2 (8), 20-33.  https://doi.org/10.1037/e511072011-001 

The article "Religion in Mesoamerica" by Alfonso Moises examines historical roots and practices that constitute the religious and cultural practices of the Mesoamerican region. Moises’ research explores Maya, Catholicism, Shamanism, Cofradia, and Protestantism as religions that have shaped the Mesoamerican area. In Moises' study, the concept of Mesoamerica follows the Paul Kirchhoff definition as a region inhabited by people with high cultures and superior cultivators. Geographically, the area described by Kirchhoff includes the highlands in the southern and central Mexico to the southeast highlands that form modern Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Moises' analysis starts with the pre-Hispanic religion practised during the Classic Maya period from 300 to 900 A.D. During that period, city-states were headed by elite priests in a hereditary system with the lower class showing respect to the elite. Religion divided followers into the upper and lower class. The division was evident from art impressions in Mesoamerica. In 1524, evangelization set in, headed by the Franciscan friars. The missionaries were given regional leadership in apostolic areas that helped in the growth of the church. In the nineteenth century, the church had immensely grown, and the clergies held immense power to spearhead political struggles for independence. Therefore, the church was actively involved in the formulation of states. Later on, Protestantism played a significant role in the market economy, making it a foundation for political alienations with other states. The Protestantism activities gave birth to capitalism because they were more interested in the social welfare of the poor than the wealthy. This article provides information on different religions and their practices in Mesoamerica, which is vital in understanding the research topic. The information offers critical details that give insights into the impact of religion on politics. The article is peer-reviewed and published in the International Journal of Humanities and Social Science journal, making it credible and reliable. 

Munson, J., Amati, V., Collard, M., & Macri, M. J. (2014). Classic Maya bloodletting and the cultural evolution of religious rituals: Quantifying patterns of variation in hieroglyphic texts.  PLoS ONE ,  9 (9), e107982.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107982 

In this article, Munson et al. examine the bloodletting rituals among Mesoamerican religions. The authors suggest that Classic societies had religious rituals characterized by pain, stress, and suffering. This pain was a sign of commitment that was vital for the evolution and growth of complex societies. Munson et al. identify a gap in research about the cultural transmission of extreme rituals among past societies. The authors analyze the bloodletting rituals in classic Maya, covering 250 to 900 CE hieroglyphic texts. The sociopolitical contexts associated with these rituals are also analyzed to link bloodletting practices and politics. Using the search word "ch’ahb” associated with bloodletting, the authors identify 2,480 hieroglyphic texts that meet the legibility criteria for the analysis. Munson et al. find that the rituals exhibited low frequency. It is inconclusive whether the occurrences were not frequent if the documentation is insufficient. Therefore, these occurrences cannot form a predictable spatial location pattern. However, network ties in the southern Maya region portray a distribution pattern for these rituals. The authors conclude that the rituals signalled royal commitment among connected polities, suggesting a link between religion and political entities. According to Munson et al., social scientists have explained this link by associating intense rituals with social bonds. Bloodletting rituals generate collective benefits that offset individual suffering by promoting social bonding and cohesiveness. Political organizations thrive through this bonding, which promotes cooperation among different classes, rulers, and subjects. This article provides evidence that bloodletting was religion, and it impacted politics through the bonding and commitment effect. The information provides solutions to my research question and demonstrates the impact of religion on politics. The article is peer-reviewed and published in PLoS ONE journal, making it credible and reliable. 

Summary 

Title: Impact of Religion on Politics in the Teotihuacan Region of Mesoamerica 

Research Question: Did religion contribute to the political stability of the Teotihuacan Region of Mesoamerica? 

Kirchhoff describes the ancient Mesoamerica as the highlands that cover southern and central Mexico and stretch to the southeast highlands that extend to modern Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador (Moises, 2012). Structural analysis of the sociopolitical structure of Teotihuacan by Mandell (2009) reveals a trinity format borrowed from religious practices. The architectural design of religious structures shows a symbol of a trinity that starts with a three-mile-long central path. The path, named the Avenue of the Dead, stretches up to a Pyramid of the Moon. There were numerous temples aligned on the path with evidence of massive ritual festivities. The temples symbolized the rich religious background of the Teotihuacan inhabitants. The political structure takes a similar trinity approach, where rulers, the military heads, and lineage heads competed or collaborated to be in power. The powerful single rulers were the most frequent leaders in Teotihuacan but could not execute their roles and stay in power without collaboration with one of the other parties. A collaboration between the powerful rulers and the military heads was common, leaving the lineage heads in constant conflicts and fights with the rulers. 

The Teotihuacan region practiced several religions, including Maya, Catholicism, Shamanism, Cofradia, and Protestantism. Moises (2012) indicates that some of these religions had a significant impact on the development and politics of this region. For example, Protestantism played a significant role in the market economy and promoted the social welfare of the poor. Such religious stands affected political activities, giving rise to capitalism and people-oriented leadership styles. However, examining specific periods in the lives of the Mesoamericans reveals that religion was not always unifying. In some incidences, religion and politics experienced conflicts leading to wars between communities and authorities. Joyce & Barber (2015) demonstrate the adverse impacts of religion on politics using the lower Río Verde Valley region in Mesoamerica. In this region, religion worked against systems that promoted centrality. This led to the formation of different political factions, making it a recipe for conflicts and violence. 

An analysis of the Teotihuacan region in Mesoamerica gives similar evidence about the positive and adverse impacts of religion on politics. Teotihuacan was a vast prehistoric metropolis located in central Mexico. Despite being located in a semi-arid climate, Teotihuacan thrived rapidly in the 100s, before stagnating in the 700s and later fading (Cowgill, 1997). Similar to other Mesoamerican regions, Teotihuacan practised sacred wars and mass sacrifices. Alex (2020) reports that the shrine of decapitated heads is an example of how religion was violent. These violent religious practices slipped into politics, as demonstrated by the identity of the victims of mass sacrifices. According to Alex (2020), 70 percent of the victims were immigrants, foreigners, or captured warriors. This indicates that rulers and religious leaders worked together in the mass offerings to inflict pain and suffering to populations from different authorities. 

Despite the suffering and conflicts that originated from religious practices and spilt to politics, Teotihuacan remained politically stable for hundreds of years. This stability in governance provokes Froese et al.’s (2014) research on the ability of ancient governments to be self-organized and stable. The researchers use a mathematical model that examines ancient government in Mesoamerica and concludes a trend of high-level organization among the Teotihuacan. According to Froese et al. (2014), the widespread cooperation is linked to community-wide rituals that acted as a binding factor among the Teotihuacan’s. These rituals were mostly religious and provided a vital link between the impact of religion in promoting political cooperation and stability. Munson et al. (2014) share a similar view by suggesting that the bloodletting rituals among Mesoamericans were a sign of commitment that was vital for the bonding and growth of the regions. This evidence confirms that religion had a role in the political stability of Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica. 

References 

Alex, B. (2020). The Shrine of decapitated heads suggests violence against foreigners in ancient Mexico. Archaeology ,  8 (4).  https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg2122 

Cowgill, G. L. (1997). State and society at Teotihuacan, Mexico.  Annual Review of Anthropology ,  26 (4), 129-161.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/2952518 

Froese, T., Gershenson, C., & Manzanilla, L. R. (2014). Can government be self-organized? A mathematical model of the collective social organization of ancient Teotihuacan, central Mexico.  PLOS ONE ,  9 (10), e109966.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109966 

Hirth, K. G., Carballo, D. M., & Arroyo, B. (2020). Power, politics, and governance at Teotihuacan. In  Teotihuacan: The world beyond the city  (pp. 57-96). Dumbarton Oaks Research Library & Collection.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340900102_Power_Politics_and_Governance_at_Teotihuacan 

Joyce, A. A., & Barber, S. B. (2015). Ensoulment, entrapment, and political centralization.  Current Anthropology ,  56 (6), 819-847.  https://doi.org/10.1086/683998 

Mandell, E. (2009). Review of "The Teotihuacan trinity: The sociopolitical structure of an ancient Mesoamerican city" by Annabeth Headrick.  College Art Association Reviews .  https://doi.org/10.3202/caa.reviews.2009.106 

Moises, A. (2012). Religion in Mesoamerica.  International Journal of Humanities and Social Science ,  2 (8), 20-33.  https://doi.org/10.1037/e511072011-001 

Munson, J., Amati, V., Collard, M., & Macri, M. J. (2014). Classic Maya bloodletting and the cultural evolution of religious rituals: Quantifying patterns of variation in hieroglyphic texts.  PLoS ONE ,  9 (9), e107982.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107982