Swimming is an individual or team sport in which participant propel themselves through water by using their arms and legs coordinately. Other than swimming for pleasure and leisure or for survival from drowning, swimming as a sport can be competitive. An example is during the Olympics where the competition is characterized by different distances represented through popular styles such as butterfly, backstroke, freestyle, breaststroke, and individual medley. Each style follows a framework of specific techniques and skills that are in line with the conventional regulations. The backstroke, in particular, is one of the four major aforementioned styles of swimming but is slower than butterfly and freestyle with the breaststroke coming in as the slowest of the four. As the movement pattern of choice and interest, the backstroke bears some similarities to the freestyle regarding alternation of the arm, pulling motion, and the flutter kick that aids in forward propulsion.
Brief History of Swimming And Backstroke
Swimming as a physical movement traces its roots back in the Stone Age period evidenced by the prehistoric drawings in ‘the cave of swimmers’ located in the vicinity of Wadi Sura in Southwestern part of Egypt (RSC03, 2007). In essence, the prehistoric man is believed to have learned the basic swimming movements such as the dog paddle portrayed in the drawings to aid him in crossing rivers as well as lakes. Further evidence is exhibited in the Greek mythology and the Bible providing an early reference of bathing and the variant naïve versions of the front crawl (McVicar, 1936). However, competitive swimming was first introduced in Britain in 1830 by the National Swimming Society as a men’s sport. At the time, London owned human-made pools that the National Swimming Association of England utilized for competitive swimming.
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These organized events popularized the sport in and around England culminating in the formation of the Amateur Swimming Association in 1880. The swimming strokes utilized at the time were the breaststroke and the side stroke. However, with the introduction of the front crawl by John Trudgen in 1873 that was used together with the flutter or scissor kick, the swimming speed was greatly enhanced bringing new excitement to the sport. With different ratio combination of the kicks and strokes, the freestyle movement pattern developed as the fastest swimming pattern to date. The exact popularization of the sport came in 1886 during the Olympic Games held in Athens, Greece. During the Olympics, swimming was characterized by four contests categorized as 100 meters, 100 meters for sailors, 1200 meters, as well as 500 meters events (Athletic Scholarships, 2018).
Subsequently, in 1900, the second Olympic Games were held in Paris, France, including categories such as the 200 meters, 1000 meters, 4000 meters, the 200 meters relay race, as well as the 200 meters backstroke. While the freestyle 4000 meters event was the longest competitive event in the history of swimming, the backstroke left a mark as the first ever style to be used in the water polo Olympic event. In 1908, the first world’s swimming association referred to as FINA was formed. The association organized the next Olympic Games in Stockholm which included women participating in the different swimming categories inclusive of the breaststroke, backstroke, as well as freestyle relay for the first time in history. Since then, swimming has witnessed giants such as Spitz and Michael Phelps with backstroke, freestyle, and breaststroke still dominating the sport with new inclusions such as the butterfly style and the dolphin kick in the backstroke.
Intentions and Objectives of the Paper
This scholarship seeks to examine swimming and particularly backstroke as a physical motion or movement pattern. On the same breath, a concise history of swimming as a sport as well as the chosen movement pattern will be provided tracking its origin and historical development over time to what it is in the contemporary society. Through the application of industry and biomechanical terms, the paper will provide a discussion on the correct technique of performing the backstroke. In this regard, two perspectives pertinent to the movement pattern will be presented. The first viewpoint will be that of the expert or professional swimmer while the second perspective will involve the novice in the sport. This section of the discourse will be evidence-based and will be supported by videos and photos of both professional and novice swimmers portraying the movement pattern.
Justifications regarding why the two subjects were chosen will be highlighted in the discussion detailing their descriptions and the data collection methods employed. Subsequently, after observing and viewing the videos, a comparative discourse using biomechanical terms will be presented including the similarities and differences in the movement of both subjects performing the backstroke. By drawing ideas and thoughts from the discussions of peer-reviewed journals and articles, the biomechanical analysis will shift its focus from comparison to providing feedback on how to improve the movement of the novice subject in a bid to prevent injuries. The section will culminate in the discussion of fundamental recommendations in accordance with the industry’s conventional standards and regulations on how to perform the movement pattern.
How to Correctly Perform the Backstroke Movement
Jesus et al. (2014) contend that the backstroke is the only competitive swimming pattern in which the swimmer starts in the water. The authors’ further note that a good start in such a competitive stage is fundamental in improving the athlete’s overall performance. To this end, a good starting position of the movement pattern referred to as the flight phase requires a strong push from the feet making a curve or arch-like motion into the water. The end of this phase is marked with the fingertip contact with the water followed by the head and the hips. The subsequent phase is the water or underwater phase which entails a glide motion characterized by a powerful dolphin kick that has to be undertaken up to the maximum feet depth. All the while, this movement has to be done while holding one’s breath until the swimmer’s hands break the water surface which commences the underwater kicking. The authors further assert that the glide phase according to the FINA regulations does not involve underwater lower limb propulsive movements such as kicking.
On breaking the surface, the proper swimmer’s position has to be supine, and as such, the initial position for the shoulder’s glenohumeral joint must be flexed and marginally rotate while the arm, especially the elbow, should be completely extended. The fifth phalange or the small finger should be inferior to the first digit in the sense that it enters the water first. Subsequently, the arm or the hand enters the water downwards starting with the fifth metacarpal first and the elbow slightly flexing and catching the water while in an anterior movement pattern whereby the phalanges are adducted. In other words, the proper movement pattern here has to form an S-like motion or pattern called a stroke. In essence, the correct execution of this movement pattern is associated with increased thrust, performance, and speed. This is demonstrated by the ‘Backstroke Swimming Technique: Stroke’ expert video created by Speedo International below
Obtained from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JghqyliWwb4
According to Barbosa et al. (2011), the body roll during the strokes is equally important and is fundamentally enhanced by a streamlined body position. The authors state that good swimmers should have a huge body roll with an immense emphasis on the kicking action. After the catch phase described above, the next phase is the mid pull phase which is majorly a continuation of the catch phase whereby the anterior movement of the flexed elbow pulls the body through the water. Ultimately, the arm should extend simultaneously and end up on the side of the body thus invoking the other arm to undertake the same process alternatingly. Next is the finish phase where the other arm should pronate and begin the movement of coming out of the water with the thumb first in preparation for the recovery phase. In the recovery phase, the arm should complete the final semi-circle returning the arm to its original position, that is, superior to or above the head. This ends the upper body movement pattern of the backstroke as demonstrated in the expert video above.
The coordination between the upper and lower body is salient for the successful execution of any swimming strokes, and as such, the backstroke is no exception. Thus, the upper and lower body parts need to be in sync with fluid propulsion and movement as observed in the expert video. The lower body movement pattern is enabled by the main joints of the ankles which include the talocrural and the subtalar joints. The hip affects the limb actions and the propulsion speed regarding increase and decrease (Barbosa et al., 2011). For a proper lower body movement pattern, the swimmer should not flex the tibiofemoral joint because it invokes kicking from the knee thus causing the sinking of the legs into the water. Preferably, the swimmer should kick from the hip with his or her legs relatively extended moving them in a simultaneous up and down pattern. However, while kicking from the iliofemoral joint with extended legs, the knees will be flexed slightly, a process that happens naturally. In this situation, the swimmer should not think of bending or flexing the knees; instead, he should concentrate on the hip movement.
For the movement pattern of the feet, the ankles should be plantar flexed with the toes pointing down. The ankles should not be in dorsiflexion which when coupled with bent toes during kicking will increase propulsion and velocity. During this movement pattern, a huge body roll is crucial for thrust and increased speed (Barbosa et al., 2011). The converse results are increased drag, poor coordination, as well as reduced speed as observed in the ‘Backstroke: Poor Core-Driven Rotation’ video below.
Obtained from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huppgL7VA0Q
Consistent and regular breathing during this movement pattern is crucial in bringing rhythm to the strokes. The swimmer should as much as possible avoid holding his or her breath. Breath should be taken each time the arm makes a complete cycle or when the arm passes over the ear while exhaling should be done when the other arm completes the cycle or passes over the ear as observed in the image below.
Obtained from http://d1s9j44aio5gjs.cloudfront.net/2014/11/Masters_Hub_Improving_Backstroke_Technique_485px.png
Identification and Description of the Two Subjects
Expert Subject
The first subject is an expert swimmer in a video created by Speedo International and presented by the ProSwimwear. The essential reason for choosing the expert pro for the project was to demonstrate the correct backstroke technique. As an expert, the subject illustrates the proper movement patterns of stroking, kicking, positioning, hip movement, body roll, as well as breathing that is in line with the literature regarding the correct backstroke movement pattern. Choosing the expert involved internet research on expert videos from reputable organizations demonstrating the proper technique.
Novice Subject
The second subject is a novice backstroke swimmer presented in a video by USA Swimming, a leading organization in sports swimming in the United States. In the video, the novice swimmer demonstrates poor core-driven rotation where the arms seem to be working independently of the body and its rotation edifying a poor technique. The poor technique in the video often results in several ancillary flaws related to the stroking technique which explains the reason why the subject and the video were selected for the project. The procedure taken to choose the novice subject was through internet research of such videos posted by leading organizations in the sport. The search culminated in selecting a video from YouTube uploaded by the USA Swimming.
Data Gathering Methods
The data regarding the correct backstroke techniques was gathered through the underwater, overhead, as well as the side cameras that jointly covered the different angles pertinent to the technique. The angles and data included breathing, kicking, positioning, and stroking. However, the main data collection and analysis method employed was the qualitative method through which the different phases of the movement pattern were recorded. Further qualitative information regarding the precise movement patterns of the hips, legs, mid-body and the arms was obtained via observation through which descriptions of the movements in biomechanical terms were provided. Also, EMG was used in collecting information regarding the muscle activities of the subjects.
Biomechanical Analysis
Expert Subject
From the expert video above, the streamlined or supine body position is evident with the head through the neck muscles held above the water. From the take-off, the expert’s Tibialis Anterior is activated thus preventing ankle hyper-extension and allowing for the dolphin kick as well as gliding. The expert’s stroking involves the shoulders glenohumeral joint which is flexed and rotated externally allowing the arm to break the water with a completely extended elbow. This movement is repeated alternatively for both arms whereby the fifth metacarpal enters the water first in the catch phase while slightly flexing at the elbow. Subsequently, the phalanges pad the water with an interior movement pattern adducting (as per the EMG analysis) as the arm comes to rest on the side of the body in the mid pull phase. When breaking out of the water, the expert’s arm extends with the thumb finger first, and the forearm pronated continuing the recovery phase. The expert’s upper and lower body movements are coordinated with the subtalar and the talocrural joint aiding the lower body kicking movement. Other than the extended back, the expert’s legs and feet are extended enabling kicking from the hips at the iliofemoral joint rather than the knees. The kicks are simultaneous, and the ankles plantar flexed rather than dorsiflexed which increases his velocity. The expert’s face is fixed upwards, and with every rotation of the arms through the glenohumeral joint, the body rolls depending on the arm that is in motion.
The stroke length and frequency are essential in determining the speed and velocity of a swimmer as the main variables. Further kinematics such as the propulsive and drag forces are determined by the size of the athlete and the diameter of the palm. From the observation, the athlete is tall and has a wider palm diameter. In addition, he has longer stroke lengths but reduced stroke frequency of averagely two strokes per second which still increases his velocity given the slow nature of backstroke. For the limbs kinematics, the expert kicks on average four times per arm cycle which increases his speed through the water. While padding the water, the drag force keeps the expert’s arm and particularly the elbow extended thus generating the propulsive force pulling the athlete forward through the water as opposed to the beginning and catch phases (Formosa, Mason, & Burkett, 2009). In resisting the drag, the expert’s biceps tighten generating the forward propulsion force. Through regular breathing patterns, the expert achieves buoyancy and reduces the gravitational pull as he maintains consistent forward propulsion.
Novice Subject
From the novice video above, the novice athlete demonstrates all the proper backstroke movement patterns as the expert apart from the arms and body coordination. From the observation through the underwater camera, it can be deduced that the athlete’s body roll is out of sync with the strokes. Regarding the strokes kinematics, the novice makes two strokes per second on average as her stroke frequency. Regarding limbs kinematics, the athlete kicks from the hips through the iliofemoral joint and maintains an average of six kicks per arm cycle which gives her greater speed. However, she is not heavily built like the expert; this offers her a better-streamlined body that experiences little drag force giving her greater velocity. Through the regular breathing, the novice makes use of the buoyancy force fending off gravity as she swims. With a smaller palm diameter and poor biceps and triceps muscles, the novice generates little propulsion force which makes the expert faster than her on observation.
Comparison of the Subjects
Movement and Performance Similarities
Regarding stroking kinematics, both of the subjects exhibit the correct stroking patterns whereby the thumb leaves the water first, and the fifth metacarpal subsequently entering the water first during rotation. Both subjects show similar average stroking frequencies of two strokes per second. Also, they demonstrate identical and perfect kicking technique through the iliofemoral joint of the hip rather than the knees. Moreover, their body positions are flattened or supine with their heads held above the water via the neck muscles. Regarding movement, there is a noticeable body roll in each subject in response to the movement of the arms. Further, both subjects move from one end of the pool to the other without trouble edifying good performance.
Movement and Performance Differences
Despite similar kicking and stroking techniques, the expert achieves superior performance due to synchronized or coordinated movement of the arms as well as the body roll giving him greater propulsion. Also, the expert subject achieved greater velocity as opposed to the novice because he had a greater palm diameter and muscle mass that increased propulsion as opposed to the novice. However, regarding performance, the novice experienced less drag force as opposed to the expert due to her slender body that made her more streamlined. Regarding limb kinetics, the beginner had a higher kick frequency of six kicks per arm cycle as opposed to the expert who had four per arm cycle.
Feedback and Recommendations to Improve the Novice’s Performance
Since the novice’s technique is only lacking in coordination between the strokes and body roll, improving performance should focus on synchronization of the strokes and the body roll. To this extent, the novice should roll to the side during the pull of the arm that is making the stroke, recover to the normal position when the arm comes to rest on the side of the body, and repeat the same process for the other arm. In addition, the subject should indulge in light weightlifting to increase arms and legs muscle mass to be able to generate more pull and forward propulsion. Moreover, it is recommended for the subject to observe expert backstroke swimmers either through videos or physically regarding how they execute the synced movement pattern. As such, the video below will be fundamental towards the course.
Obtained from https://youtu.be/bO3R0BfngJw
The novice should employ the one-arm backstroke technique as per the FINA standards. This technique significantly focuses on the body roll, rotating shoulders simultaneously with the hips as well as developing strength from the deep pull. As Jesus et al. (2015) suggest, focusing on the hip motion is essential at the start and in water movement patterns. The novice will find the chart below helpful in perfecting her basic movement techniques.
Obtained from https://i2.wp.com/humankinetics.me/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/8.1-_Page_2-e1505129076112.jpg?ssl=1
Feedback and Recommendations to Prevent Injuries
Due to the extensive use of the glenohumeral joint, shoulder injuries are the most common in backstroke swimming. An example of this is the rotator cuff impingement caused by scapula pressure during swimming. Also, inflammation of the neck muscles due to the lifting of the head above the water results in neck injuries. Others include lower back pain as well as bicep tendonitis that results from the pulling motion. Bartlett (2002) suggests that proper training, especially with an expert or professional, is fundamental in avoiding unnecessary straining. The novice should also avoid training when the muscles are tired. In fact, during practice, it is advisable for the subject to alternate arms especially during the one-arm backstroke technique to avoid the overuse of muscle groups. Ultimately, perhaps the most fundamental recommendation is to warm up and stretch before commencing training or swimming in general.
Swimming as a sport made its debut in 1830 in Britain despite prehistoric evidence of the activity. The backstroke traces its origins in the 1900s during the Olympic Games, and it was the first swimming technique used in water polo. Fundamental insights regarding the proper technique involving stroking, positioning, kicking, and breathing have been proffered in the paper with evidential differences between the expert and novice videos obtained through research. Significant similarities in movement and performance of the two subjects such as kicking and stroking techniques have also been highlighted. The differences in kinematics such as kicking frequency and muscle mass have been presented explaining their effects on drag, propulsion, and ultimately velocity. In addition, the feedback regarding how to improve the performance of the novice subject with recommendations such as watching experts practice the movement pertinent to body roll as well as following the industry’s standards on one-arm backstroke technique to aid in rolling have been discussed. Ultimately, due to injuries such as the rotator cuff impingement and inflammations of the neck muscles and biceps, the paper recommends the novice to avoid swimming when tired and to warm up or stretch before swimming.
References
Athletic Scholarship. (2018). The History of Competitive Swimming. Retrieved from https://www.athleticscholarships.net/swimming-history.htm
Backstroke Animation. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bO3R0BfngJw
Barbosa, T. M., Marinho, D. A., Costa, M. J., & Silva, A. J. (2011). Biomechanics of Competitive Swimming Strokes. In Biomechanics in Applications. InTech . Retrieved from http://cdn.intechweb.org/pdfs/19665.pdf
Bartlett, R. (2002). Sports Biomechanics: Reducing Injury Risk and Improving Sports Performance. Taylor & Francis, ISBN-13: 9781135826222. Pp. 1-296.
Chart. Retrieved from https://humankinetics.me/2017/09/11/teaching-children-to-swim/
De Jesus, K., de Jesus, K., Fernandes, R. J., Vilas-Boas, J. P., & Sanders, R. (2014). The Backstroke Swimming Start: State of the Art. Journal of Human Kinetics , 42, 27–40. http://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2014-0058
De Jesus, K., De Jesus, K., Medeiros, A. I., Gonçalves, P., Figueiredo, P., Fernandes, R. J., & Vilas-Boas, J. P. (2015). Neuromuscular Activity of Upper and Lower Limbs During Two Backstroke Swimming Start Variants. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine , 14(3), 591-601. Retrieved from https://www.jssm.org/researchjssm-14-591.xml.xml#
Formosa, D., Mason, B., & Burkett, B. (2009). Measuring Propulsive Force Within the Different Phases of Backstroke Swimming. In ISBS-Conference Proceedings Archive (Vol. 1, No. 1). Retrieved from https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/cpa/article/viewFile/3144/2922
McVicar, J. W. (1936). A Brief History of the Development of Swimming. Research Quarterly. American Physical Education Association , 7(1), 56-67. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/23267402.1936.10761757
ProSwimwear. (2013). Speedo Swim Technique - Backstroke - Created by Speedo, Presented by ProSwimwear. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JghqyliWwb4
RSC03. (2007). History of Swimming. Retrieved from http://rsc03.net/Swimming.html
USA Swimming. (2015). Backstroke: Poor Core-driven Rotation. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huppgL7VA0Q
