Zaehner’s book – Mysticism, Sacred, and Profane – is one of the best comparative studies of mysticism. The book is written to counter Huxley’s ideas on psychedelic perennialism. In his introductory statement, Zaehner states that he wrote the book because of Aldous Huxley ( Gellman, 2018 ). According to Zaehner, Huxley’s ideas on psychedelic mysticism are faced by social and theological challenges. First, Zaehner perceives Huxley’s opinions on his book ‘The Doors of Perception’ as a social danger because it outlines that each individual's life should be dominated by altered states of mind ( Spencer, 2016 ). As a result, Zaehner raises a question on how a society could be run through mysticism. However, as time passed, Huxley addressed the limits of his statement considering the number of schools drop-outs following his trivialized psychedelic mysticism during that time. Therefore, his ideas were not so far-fetched in society.
The theological problem is also a moral issue, according to Zaehner. Zaehner believes that incidences of drug-induced experiences gained after long sessions of religious practice poses a significant problem for any religion and should be avoided at all costs. From his catholic point of view, Zaehner understood that Huxley’s ideas would challenge the catholic concept of moral discipline as expressed by the church sacraments ( Spencer, 2016 ). Huxley wanted to integrate mysticism with religion worldwide and people’s lifestyles. However, he saw the problem in his proposal and limited the use of psychedelic mysticism to special ceremonies and rituals. In my opinion, Zaehner was right to stand against Huxley’s ideas because a combination of the psychedelic culture and mystic practices of the 1960s with uncontrolled drug consumption would have been a big problem for the society at large.
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Both Zaehner and Huxley agreed that mysticism surpasses perception and informal thinking of all individuals. They believed that although mystical experiences may be closely associated with madness, they sometimes can be used to reveal reality. As a result, in their works, they both advocate for a perennial society only if the mystical experiences are identical and common to all the cultures. However, Zaehner believes that the experiences cannot be identical everywhere. He differentiates the mystic experiences based on two primary instincts that dominate mysticism. The first instinct is the self-preservation act that is concerned with upholding individual life. The other instinct is the sexual instinct concerned with inclusion of each individual’s life into a community ( Gellman, 2018 ). On the other hand, Huxley’s mysticism is based upon the idea of human being’s desire to rise above themselves. Zaehner’s concept of mysticism is based on a state of unity ( Baier, n.d ). Although Huxley’s mysticism is based on a real experience, Zaehner’s mysticism identifies itself with personal experiences creating a loving union between individuals and their religions.
Huston Smith is the other author that believed if psychedelics are used responsibly, they can bring out the truth of our everyday experiences. In his article ‘Do Drugs Have Religious Import?’ he clarifies that drugs can induce religious experiences. He adds that even if drugs can be identified with spiritual experiences it is not evident that they can determine an individual’s religious life ( Spencer, 2016 ). Zaehner strongly disagreed with Huston’s statements. He stated that Huston had misinterpreted the experiences of mysticism. However, despite the criticism from several authors, Huston did not change his position on psychedelics. Moreover, his stand on psychedelic mystic experiences served as a basis for many traditional religions worldwide because most of them employed a psychedelic sacrament. Although Zaehner had dismissed the claim that psychedelic experiences could bring out spiritual insights among individuals, Huston pointed out that Zaehner’s assertion was chauvinistic and provincial because, for centuries human beings have deemed psychedelic experiences significant and authentic.
I support Houston Smith's arguments given that they were the most significant. He argued that every religious tradition had value and no religion was above the other. He emphasized that each religion should be followed accordingly. Also, he advised the people to understand each other’s cultures and traditions to live respectful among each other. Zaehner’s idea of state of unity complements Huston’s view of harmonious living despite the differences in our religious traditions. Therefore, it is evident that Huston’s stand on psychedelic mystic experiences presents an overall significance since his views will remain relevant for generations to come.
Part 2
Mystical experiences are often culturally specific which makes it challenging to predict their origin since they practiced by individuals from varying contexts. For instance, according to entheogenic theory, mystical experiences can significantly differ because of such differences in culture ( Underhill, 2018 ). Also, the mystical experiences can vary based on religious beliefs, personality traits, and practices involved with mysticism. These theories explain how altered state of consciousness has been used to produce mystical experiences similar to one’s state of mind based on religious practice ( Spencer, 2016 ). Mysticism is experienced when an individual permanently inhabits altered state of consciousness in the context of spiritual practice and can communicate with the outside world. Thus, etheogenic theory and mystical experiences are important constructs of mystical states.
Another theory that supports the idea of an altered state of consciousness is the eliminative theory of perception. Huxley in his book ‘The Doors of Perception’ describes eliminative theory with regards to drugs and mystic experiences. The eliminative theory states that we are all animals and need to determine various ways to survive. Our survival depends on how our brains react to different scenarios. Therefore, whatever reaction that ensures our survival is the kind of consciousness that will ensure we stay alive. According to Huxley, such reactions may be acquired spontaneously or deliberately as a result of performing various religious exercises or through the usage of drugs ( Underhill, 2018 ). The theory can be used to explain mysticism as a process that occurs when the biological processes of human perception changes. As a result, the outcomes of the changes result in automatization of specific goals and objectives directed towards the environment. However, biological changes in human sensory perception may not always result in mystical experiences.
According to Zaehner’s book ‘Mysticism, Sacred and Profane,’ mysticism can be defined based on three categories: nature mysticism, monistic mysticism, and theistic mysticism. The first category describes mystic states with regard to the natural world. The second category, monistic mysticism, individuals merge with absolute experiences. In the last category, theistic mysticism combines personal experiences with a particular deity ( Spencer, 2016 ). All three categories are expressed in the entheogenic theories. However, Zaehner argues only nature and monistic mysticism can be accessed employing drugs ( Baier, n.d ). On the contrary, Zaehner may not be aware that entheogens, such as the sacred plants in some cultures are considered sentient and are perceived as gods. Therefore, one can say that the foundation of some religions is based on these entheogenic plants.
In conclusion, it is challenging to determine what constitutes mystical states and the origin of mysticism. However, the theory of entheogenic offers a clear perspective of mystical experiences. There are many different cultures in the world, as well as many different religious traditions. With that said, each individual will experience different mystic states depending on their traits and religious beliefs. Therefore, I believe personal experiences and habits are what constitute mystical states. This is so because our day to day activities differ from each individual regardless the culture and religion tradition. Individuals will perform different actions that will bring out different results, and some of those results may be mystical experiences.
References
Baier, K. (n.d). High Mysticism: On the interplay between the psychedelic movement and academic study of mysticism. Retrieved 11 October 2019, from https://www.academia.edu/30979148/High_Mysticism_On_the_interplay_between_the_psyche elic_movement_and_academic_study_of_mysticism
Gellman, J. (2018). Mysticism.
Spencer, S. (2016). Mysticism in world religion . Penguin Books Limited (1963).
Underhill, E. (2018). Mysticism: A study of the nature and development of man's spiritual consciousness . e-artnow.
