New Deal Architecture - An Overview

Outline 

i. Introduction 

a. The New Deal architecture provided a recovery plan for America’s collapsed economy, following the Great Depression 

b. Under the New Deal, Franklin Roosevelt assured the less privileged citizens of the pending benefit 

ii. New Deal and America’s Image of Capitalism 

a. the new deal appears to have a positive link with America’s image of capitalism, as its adoption would see more growth and investments in buildings 

b. More investors would be encouraged under the Modernization Credit Plan (MCP) to secure loans at relatively cheaper costs 

c. Lenders would advance loans at low risk since the facility was deemed covered by insurance 

iii. Grids, Blocks, and Rectilinear Boxes of the Industrial City 

a. Adoption of grids, blocks, and rectilinear boxes of the industrial city functioned as an analogue to the production process, much as the dispersed networks of suburbia and the modern sprawl 

b. The integration of grids appeared lucrative to most building owners because it was walkable, navigable, adaptable, economical, and orthogonal 

iv. Conclusion 

The architectural history, the establishment of the New Deal redeemed America’s image of capitalism, with the introduction of the Modernization Credit Plan (MCP). Moreover, it ascertained that the grids, blocks, and rectilinear boxes of the industrial city functioned as an analogue to the production process, much as the dispersed networks of suburbia and the modern sprawl. 

Abstract 

The aim of this assessment is to investigate the extent to which the New Deal architecture affected America’s image of capitalism, specifically examining ways in which the grids, blocks, and rectilinear boxes of the industrial city functioned as an analogue to the production process, much as the dispersed networks of suburbia and the modern sprawl. The analysis relied on secondary evidence of scholarly literature written about the new deal architecture. The content analysis of the texts has been conducted to ascertain the emerging themes from the documentary evidence. The findings established that the New Deal architecture significantly influence America’s image of capitalism as the Title I of the National Housing Act of 1934 was signed into law, with the Modernization Credit Plan (MCP) to encourage borrowers to seek for funds to invest in buildings, and this would stimulate the economy, following the Great Depression. 

Introduction 

At the beginning of 1933, America required some immediate relief and a recovery plan to see it out of the prevailing collapse of its economic system. The implementation of the reform agenda would pave the way for mitigating future economic depression. Therefore, the recovery became part of the reform initiative under Franklin D. Roosevelt once he assumed the office of the presidency of the nation (Esperdy, 2010). The pledge dubbed by his advisor as the “Brain Trust” would come up with measures to revive the economy and help the less privileged members of the community. In this regard, the concepts that gave birth to the New Deal had been debated during the earlier years but with little effect. Father John Ryan drafted the statement of National Catholic War Council of 1919, which outlined suggestions that were later perceived as the foundations of the New Deal. The New Deal concept was formed at the time Franklin Roosevelt gave his Democratic presidential nomination brief of 1932 ( Schivelbusch, 2007) . During this acceptance speech, he pledged a new deal for all the Americans. The success of the New Deal would rely on government’s authority to organize self-help for various sections and classes within the country. Combining the innovative architectural narrative, the state, and capitalism, exploring the New Deal accounts for how the conditions of businesses, as well as political programs implemented during the Great Depression, integrated and developed a new capitalistic landscape in America. 

New Deal and America’s Image of Capitalism 

The New Deal shifted the face of the storefront fascias in America. In doing so, the New Deal program involved the Modernization Credit Plan (MCP) to provide business owners with finances to upgrade their storefronts. Esperdy (2010) views this as an important move for stimulating the economic system of the nation. Notably, businesspersons operate with the main objective of maximizing their profits as they reduced their costs to the lowest possible levels, which is the spirit of capitalism. It is clear that to motivate to minimize costs comes with cost-cutting strategies such as paying workers low wages for jobs going for the longer duration, paying minimal wages for hard labor, paying fewer wages for mass production, cutting down of workers’ benefits, and engaging workers on temporary and non-pensionable terms among others. The capitalistic agenda would be beneficial to the business owners but not the workers. 

Although capitalism has its merits, it suffers the drawback of the alienation of workers from the products of their labor. They are overworked and paid minimal wages since businesses are focused more on making as much profit as possible at the expense of the human welfare. It implies that the capitalist ideology would see only a small section of the society becoming rich while the majority who relied on wages to fend themselves and their families could hardly attain economic freedom (Esperdy, 2010) Nevertheless, supporters of the capitalist program argue that it is good for stimulating economic growth. Hence, relying on this claim would mean that the New Deal would be important for Americans as the development of the economy has some spillover effects. 

The Modernization Credit Plan (MCP) under the new deal enhanced the capitalistic orientation to achieve the desired economic goals. However, critics of the new deal argue that it mainly relied on wide-scale monumental architecture, socialized public homes, and avant-garde art, specifically the art paintings. They instead advise that it is appropriate to approach the analysis of the influence of the New Deal by examining the ubiquitous storefront but not focusing on the occasional stadium ( Schivelbusch, 2007) . Moreover, the rationale for the choice of the storefront rests on their availability and widespread in most parts of the country. 

Small enterprise owners were already bearing the piling pressure of the 1920s to embrace the current facades. The approach could go alongside incorporating current business practices as a means of attracting reluctant customers to shop in their stores. Also evident in the capitalist ideology is the need to gain a competitive advantage over the other business rivals in a particular market segment (Lurie, 1934). In this regard, manufacturers and distributors embraced the MCP financing to produce and sell more of the new items such as extruded aluminum as well as structural glasses. The use of facades may appear as one on the surface, but it provides the basis for synthesizing the formal and fiscal elements of architecture emancipated during the period. 

Policymakers who were concerned with the New Deal implementation leveraged on business construction as a means to advocate for the stimulation of the economy. Consequently, they managed to develop a financing scheme to help enterprises to modernize and upgrade the buildings in which they were operating their businesses (Nowicki, 1972). The chain stores failed to invest in the construction of their businesses, and this factor resulted in paralyzing the economy largely. The government also never had adequate funds to use in paying for reconstructing America’s stock of commercial building. 

The signing of Title I of the National Housing Act of 1934 into law led to the emergence of the Modernization Credit Plan as a component of the New Deal to encourage building without relying on the direct spending from the federal government. The MCP had the goal of generating the maximum amount of private spending by injecting only a small percentage of public spending. Instead of directly financing buildings, the Federal Housing Administration (in charge of managing the MCP), provided insurance cover for loans obtained from various banks and other financial providers (Rusche, 1992). The approach proves beneficial to both the lender and the borrower as the former enjoyed a low-risk business while the latter secured the credit facility at a relatively low cost. Although the program was aimed at promoting the modernization of privately owned buildings, the loan limit was put at $2,000 ( Schivelbusch, 2007) . However, the program expanded within a period of 12 months to involve long-term tenants as well as lessees to increase the loan limit to a margin high of $50,000. It is imperative to note that the development of capital supply was different from the creating of the capital demand. Enterprises had to encourage taking the loans for the purposes of investing in the buildings. The Better Housing Program took the initiative to promote the loans for the housing owners, but most businesspeople never realized the existence of this business opportunity in the initial stages. 

Grids, Blocks, and Rectilinear Boxes of the Industrial City 

The gridwork presents a two-dimensional framework for the construction of the industrial city or urbanism. The grid provides several benefits to the building of cities as well as the dispersed networks of suburbia and sprawl witnessed in the modern times (Quilty, 1939). Zoning as well as capitalism work in unison to produce the three-dimensional form that yields at the grid-top. However, the success or failure of the grid squarely depends on the architecture, urban design as well as other aspects that guide the built environment. The advantages of the grid can be fully attained one the zoning ordinance does a perfect job, and hence the success of the industrial city, the dispersed networks of suburbia and sprawl has enhanced the American image of capitalism. 

The rectilinear grids have been beneficial because they are walkable. With the proper inclusion of proper block sizes, the grid is known to be intrinsically walkable. Block sizes that are utmost 600 feet, with a perimeter of less than 1,800 feet tend to agglomerate to constitute a connected network which is comfortable to everyone walking on foot, using a troller, traveling in a sageway or a car (W.E.W., 1964). Hence, the walkability feature has attracted most businesses to invest in the rectilinear grids because they have higher demand and thus capable of generating a lot of sales and substantial revenue. 

The navigable feature of the rectilinear grids gives an immediate sense of direction without having to rely on other navigation instruments. Customers admire this aspect as they can immediately get the understanding of where they are in the world, whether left-right or east-west. It also provides a sense of distance covered or yet to be covered ( Kelbaugh, 2002) . Provided one can is aware of the measurement unit between the intersecting points, the grid acts more like a big yardstick. The development in the architectural design to create the navigable rectilinear grids is imperative in promoting the development of industrial city and dispersed networks of suburbia and sprawl since most people have since embraced the idea by heavily investing on it. 

Rectilinear grids are adaptable to the frequently changing land uses. The development of the rectilinear blocks has made it possible to transit from the old land uses and plug in new land uses. For example, Fast forward dates to almost 200 years old but the same block today can still accommodate high rise apartments ( Kelbaugh, 2002) . It can also contain high art galleries and office buildings. The architectural development is a unique one of its kind since not all blocks are capable of doing so. 

The greater American rectilinear grids used encompassed orthogonal feature with blocks arranged at 90 degrees. The characteristic is deemed desirable because it makes the construction of buildings cheap and convenient for everyone to live in (McLeod, 1983). Moreover, the orthogonal blocks have made objects, as well as land uses, trade spaces with much efficiency and ease. The geometric efficiencies envisioned in the architectural design compounds as one transcends up the scale. 

The rectilinear grids are economical since they allow architects and builders to do many things with the least resources. For example, the same block in Manhattan is known to accommodate nearly everything, ranging from a farmhouse right to a skyscraper (McLeod, 1983). The economic aspect of the grids has made investors in the building and construction industry does many things, and thus they are seen to be sustainable in the long-run. 

The grid employed in the development of the industrial city and dispersed networks of suburbia and sprawl is appendable as they provide room for expansion and the establishment of new buildings. Since the block provides the fundamental unit of the rectilinear grid, some new block can easily be appended to the old one in a logical order that theoretically guides the construction (Leighninger, 1996). By using the grid, urban planners, as well as city designers, have been on the frontline of advancing the continuous linearity lineage. 

Part of the development of the industrial city championed by radical planners and architects of the late nineteenth century and the beginning of the 20 th century, superblocks and rectilinear boxes aimed to delink community life from the problems the street tyranny presumed. Functional zoning portioned various services as well as industry, and the green partitions were separated to serve as important pathways. For example, grids, as well as irregular elements, are dominant in San Francisco (Leighninger, 1996). Grids and rectilinear boxes were imposed on most part of the city. However, in some of the steepest sections, irregular plans were created to pave the way for mounting the slopes at manageable grades. In the areas where the grid plan imposed some steep terrain, the steep and dangerous streets are evidenced, with gradients almost reaching 20 percent. It is not appropriate whatsoever to construct vehicular streets in the very steep. 

When the steep streets are unavoidable, they can be constructed with some stairs to foreclose their usage by motor vehicles. The sinuous alignment of street renders the mounting of a grade possible at some moderate angle (Nowicki, 1972). Notably, stairways shortcutting the long stretch of the switchbacks are more desirable to the pedestrians. 

Notwithstanding the linkage of the grids, rectilinear boxes, and blocks with planning, not every planned space is gridded. Precisely, the contemporary development of the United States sprawl is hardly gridded (Quilty, 1939). The tracts are often placed in a cul-de-sacmaze that eradicates through traffic along several streets. The streets are often curved and may respect the existing topography. On the contrary, they prove to be risky and disastrous at the same time. The development assumes at the beginning that all traveling is done by a motorcar and usually ignores sidewalks fully, despite the fact that adequate room often prevails for them. Individual cycling or walking have to undergo the stressful long detours before they finally arrive at the most nearby locations since the web connection appears to be weak. The other reason for making the long detours is based on the absence of the rights-of-way to connect a network of various paths (Nowicki, 1972). The topology selected has proved to be ineffective for most non-motorized modes of transport. The challenge also presents a myriad of problems to young children who usually cut through different yards. The propertyowners usually label accusations on such kids for having committed the serious crime of trespassing on a privately-owned property. 

Apart from the exception mentioned earlier, a majority of the city planning and design since the Renaissance embraced the grid. It reached a peak during the westward expansion of the United States, when several gridded towns were developed along various railroads. In most situations, the same plan was stamped repetitively onto the piece of land (Leighninger, 1996). The matter can be viewed as one of expedience. Nevertheless, nearly every town still holds its original street-network, in the event of their establishments since streets are not usually altered. 

Conclusion 

The integration of the architectural history, the establishment of the New Deal redeemed America’s image of capitalism, with the introduction of the Modernization Credit Plan (MCP) to encourage borrowers to seek finances for investing in buildings. The event followed the Great Depression and hence the quest for a more pragmatic approach to create a new capitalistic landscape in America. The development paved the way for the integration of the grids, blocks, and rectilinear boxes in the planning and design of most towns. The combination of the grids proved attractive to most investors in the building and construction industry because it was walkable, navigable, adaptable, economical, and orthogonal. Nevertheless, the gridded spaces in the high topography force non-motorized to make long detours before they reach their desired destinations. Evidence also proves that most contemporary developments in the US sprawls are often never gridded. 

Annotated Bibliography 

Esperdy, G. (2010). Modernizing Main Street: Architecture and Consumer Culture in the New Deal . New York, NY: University of Chicago Press 

The article posits that the crucial aspect of the New Deal, which is the Modernization Credit Plan, assisted in transforming urban business districts as well as tiny-town commercial strips in 1930s America. Unfortunately, it has been long forgotten. Esperdy explores the cultural history of modernized storefronts dating back to the hundreds of thousands years. The program materialized because of the unfamiliar federal provision that allocated billions of dollars to assist shop owners who desired to upgrade their facades. The author argues that the upgraded storefronts performed a variety of complex functions, including encouraging the public consumption spending, advancing the influences of the New Deal, revitalizing the stagnating industry, and implementing European modernist architecture to the current landscape. 

Kelbaugh, D. (2002). Repairing the American Metropolis: Common Place Revisited . Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 

The article reports the claim that suburban sprawl, because of bad policy and poor planning, has resulted in the reduction of most centers in American’s urban to become dust. Kelbaugh searches for the answer to the question whether new policies can be instituted to revitalize the fragmented as well as polarized nation’s metropolises. The author brings in the concept of a quiet revolution that has been happening in the town planning as well as the architectural fields in the last decades. Existing zoning as well as ideas on urban design are currently being assessed and reversed. 

Leighninger, R. D. (1996) . Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space. 

Journal of Architectural Education (1984- ), Vol. 49, No. 4 (May, 1996), pp. 226-236 

The article analyses the role of public spaces in America, specifically the contribution made during the reign of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The administration marked the commitment made in public-building paved the way to the modern works that have defined the current public space. The article emphasizes that nearly all countries as well as citizens have derived great benefits from the facilities that were constructed during the period. The construction of the facility involved the hospitals, roads, courthouses, bridges, roads, and schools among others. Leighninger concludes that the advantages to public spaces include reactional benefits, educational benefits, and healthful benefits , which enhance creative skills and are open and free to everyone. 

Lurie, H. (1934). The New Deal Program-Summary and Appraisal. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol. 176, Social Welfare in the National Recovery Program (Nov., 1934), pp. 172-183 

The article posits that the beginning shift in the administration of the Federal Government on 4 th of March 1933 paved the way for the constructive development towards finding the solution of the anticipated social problems as well as economic problems. It records that most of the electors had already lost hope in the Administration’s ability to contain the depression and restore the economy back to its development path. Lurie concludes that majority of the social and economic problems have remained unresolved. The author provides the example of the standard of living as well as the poverty level is yet to improve. The condition of unemployment is also rife and thus calling for pragmatic approaches to resolve the problems. 

McLeod, M. (1983). “Architecture or Revolution": Taylorism, Technocracy, and Social Change. 

Art Journal, Vol. 43, No. 2, Revising Modernist History: The Architecture of the1920s and 1930s (Summer, 1983), pp. 132-147 

The article points that Corbu had little interest in politics but found it crucial to delve into politics to deal with crucial objectives of planning as well as redevelopment. His politically philosophy principally rested on issues to do with continuity of civilization on earth as well as the quest for maintaining such continuity, concerns that are difficult to label in the viewpoint of the modern political pressure groups. Nonetheless, the modern American model of production has transformed architect’s conception of Corbu’s ideology on urban planning, housing, and social role. McLeod contends that the current construction methods are partial legacy of the lost faith of the 1920s. 

Nowicki, J. (1972). A New Deal for Housing. Built Environment (1972-1975), Vol. 1, No. 5 (August 1972), pp. 309-311 

The article posits that architecture had to handle the demand for the growing technology but currently has to meet the community needs. It emphasizes that architecture constitutes a key element of a nation’s culture. It grows in tandem with the aims, likes, and views of its populace. Undergoing constant dynamics, it promotes discussion, forces a person to make decision, and evaluates its benefits. Nowicki provides subjective value discussion about architecture but acknowledges that the views are open to scrutiny. Hence, the article puts the architectural profession as one that has the responsibility of transforming the social system of the spatial environment that provides room for communities to live and grow. 

Quilty, P. (1939). W.P.A. Projects in New York City. Journal (American Water Works Association) , Vol. 31, No. 5 (May, 1939), pp. 823-831 

The article records that several projects, including water mains, had been performed for the Department of Electricity, Gas, and Water Supply before the creation of the W.P.A on 1 August 1935. The works were successfully conducted by some relief agencies such as the Civil Works Administration, the Temporary Relief Administration, the Works Division of the Emergency Relief Bureau, which were functioning by then. Quilty confirms that the W.P.A took over from these agencies and greatly expanded the scope of their activities. It developed proposals and handed them in to the Washington administration to approve and allocate funds to such programs. 

Rusche, C. (1992). Review: Building New Communities: New Deal America and Fascist Italy by Diane Ghirardo. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians , Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 447-448 

The article reaffirms since the beginning of the Second World War, there has been a conventional will to demonstrate the ideologies orchestrating Italian fascism as well as the policies regarding the American New Deal. The relationship between the fascism and the new seems to be a dissimilar one. Ruche acknowledges that the modern architecture appears to be vexing as well as more complicated than it were in the olden days. However, the article points to weakness of the architectural studies during the interwar era that heavily relied upon the same material examined by De Seta so many years ago. 

Schivelbusch, W. (2007). Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939 . New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company 

The article explores the shared components of the three New Deal by paying attention to their architectural as well as their public works programs. It aims to provide a new insight into the popularity regarding the totalitarian systems of Europe. Writing with a convincing tone, the author the author provides a historical analysis by casting a different viewpoint about the new deal. In doing so, the article highlights a provocative argument for the dominating mysterious popularity of Europe’s tyrannical regimes. 

W.E.W. (1964). The New Deal and the Arts. Archives of American Art Journal , Vol. 4, No. 1 (Jan., 1964), pp. 1-5 

The article acknowledges that the Archives have conducted, in the past years, a full-scale research on the role of the Federal Government in promoting the arts in the 1930s-40s. The researchers undertook the assessment since they believed that this constitutes a key area in the cultural history of America that required some clarification. The article suggests that this is the right to explore the aim of the New Deal as well as the art projects, which it undertook. It emphasizes scanty studies exist in this area but a thorough assessment of the entire program and its publication is lacking. 

References 

Esperdy, G. (2010). Modernizing Main Street: Architecture and Consumer Culture in the New Deal . New York, NY: University of Chicago Press 

Kelbaugh, D. (2002). Repairing the American Metropolis: Common Place Revisited . Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 

Leighninger, R. D. (1996). Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space. Journal of Architectural Education (1984- ), Vol. 49, No. 4 (May, 1996), pp. 226-236 

Lurie, H. (1934). The New Deal Program-Summary and Appraisal. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol. 176, Social Welfare in the National Recovery Program (Nov., 1934), pp. 172-183 

McLeod, M. (1983). “Architecture or Revolution": Taylorism, Technocracy, and Social Change. Art Journal, Vol. 43, No. 2, Revising Modernist History: The Architecture of the1920s and 1930s (Summer, 1983), pp. 132-147 

Nowicki, J. (1972). A New Deal for Housing. Built Environment (1972-1975), Vol. 1, No. 5 (August 1972), pp. 309-311 

Quilty, P. (1939). W.P.A. Projects in New York City. Journal (American Water Works Association) , Vol. 31, No. 5 (May, 1939), pp. 823-831 

Rusche, C. (1992). Review: Building New Communities: New Deal America and Fascist Italy by Diane Ghirardo. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians , Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 447-448 

Schivelbusch, W. (2007). Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939 . New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company 

W.E.W. (1964). The New Deal and the Arts. Archives of American Art Journal , Vol. 4, No. 1 (Jan., 1964), pp. 1-5