For many years, race has been defined as a discrete group of individuals defined by specific biological and genetic differences. Sociologists, however, maintain that race is not biological but a social construct (Coates, Ferber & Brunsma, 2017) . No cluster of genes or a gene is common to all African Americans or Caucasians. Therefore, all humans belong to a single species, and race is a man’s invention to categorize humans. The hierarchical positioning of race with light-skinned and White people at the topmost; non-indigenous people of color subdued below light-skinned individuals; indigenous and black people at the lowest level of the racial system is what makes the race a social construction.
Sociologists have asked for the removal of the race concept from genetics since genetic methods do not encourage the categorization of humans into distinct races, and racial assumptions are not ideal biological representation. Furthermore, races are not homogenous genetically and do not have well-defined genetic boundaries. Whereas ethnicity described both features of ancestry as well as personal identification and culture, societies endorse the concept of race (Coates, Ferber & Brunsma, 2017) . Sociologists do not consider racial categorization as a fact since racial labeling does not say much about human biology and behavior and primarily lies in the concepts of physical traits.
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Ramifications of the Creation of Racial Differences
Factors that reveal the substantial racial disparities include health and mortality statistics, prison enrollment and crime victimization rates, ability test scores, income and wealth levels, unemployment rates, and wages (Coates, Ferber & Brunsma, 2017) . Racial differences and the subsequent racial stigma impede the ability of the races, such as Black Americans, to recognize their full potential. For instance, jails in America overflow with young African American men. Racial disparity is also entrenched in developmental opportunities. Studies have continued to highlight the differential treatment of people based on race and formal market transactions like credit, housing, and jobs (Coates, Ferber & Brunsma, 2017) . There is also a significant difference in skills between White and African Americans, which leads to social exclusion. The stigmatized status of other races particularly African Americans also results in social segregation along racial lines.
Q2. Sociological factors contributing to obesity among African Americans
Obesity rates have been on a significant high among adult Americans over the last 30 years. There are also significant ethnic and racial disparities in obesity prevalence rates, with African Americans being 52 % more likely to be obese in comparison to non-Hispanic White Americans (Krueger & Reither, 2015). In African-American communities, obesity has been attributed to various societal elements. Some of the contributing factors include income below poverty level, sexism and racism, cultural beliefs, access to and quality of preventative care, inequities in affordable and stable housing, and access to quality education.
A significant percentage of African Americans are living in poverty and studies show that minority obese women are ten times more likely to be poor (Bilger, Kruger & Finkelstein, 2017). Obese African Americans are perceived as part of the lower socioeconomic population. Individuals perceived to be in the lower socioeconomic status are then discriminated against in terms of employment opportunities, wages, and access to community resources.
Education and income are inversely associated with obesity risks among adults from developed nations. Social class affects health, and cumulative stress beginning in infancy predicts risk factors, resulting in the development of chronic diseases (Bilger, Kruger, & Finkelstein, 2017). It is also important to note that socioeconomic disadvantage escalates psychological distress that results in maladaptive coping mechanisms like emotional eating, and eventually obesity.
African Americans are particularly vulnerable to obesity due to psychosocial stress. Racial/ethnic discrimination is a key source of psychological stress and plays a role in weight gain among African American women (Krueger & Reither, 2015). People with lower achieved education levels and parental education was more predisposed to weight gain and development of obesity in adulthood. Obesity has also been associated with neighborhoods that people leave in and access to healthy foods and recreational facilities. African Americans are likely to live in higher metropolitan-level neighborhoods with limited resources for physical activity and healthy nutrition which makes them predisposed to obesity (Bilger, Kruger, & Finkelstein, 2017). Disparities in health literacy, access to quality health care, and health insurance coverage also limit them from making healthy decisions and subsequently predisposes them to obesity.
References
Bilger, M., Kruger, E. J., & Finkelstein, E. A. (2017). Measuring socioeconomic inequality in obesity: looking beyond the obesity threshold. Health Economics , 26 (8), 1052-1066.
Coates, R. D., Ferber, A. L., & Brunsma, D. L. (2017). The Matrix of Race: Social Construction, Intersectionality, and Inequality . Sage Publications.
Krueger, P. M., & Reither, E. N. (2015). Mind the gap: race/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in obesity. Current Diabetes Reports , 15 (11), 95.
