Racial and Ethnic Relations in “Farming of the Bones”

Introduction

Through Amabelle Desir, Edwidge Danticat candidly narrates the deleterious effects of racial and ethnic segregation to immigrant communities in the novel Farming of the Bones. The title of the novel depicts the predicament of many immigrants who find themselves in hardships in trying to make meaning of life. In the tenth chapter of the book, death is considered a lucky escape from being part of the cane life, which Amabelle refers to as the “farming of the bones” (Danticat, 1998, p. 38). By portraying the difficult lives of immigrant Haitians in the Dominican Republic, Danticat highlights the historical injustice of racial and ethnic segregation and subjection of immigrants to slavery. However, the novel employs such developments to weave into perspective the main theme of ethnic cleansing and subsequent massacre (kout kouto) of Haitians in the Dominican Republic (p. 197). The event, which was long forgotten, marks the most vitriolic outcome of racism and ethnic segregation. Amabelle and Sebastian narrations surmount the racial and ethnic boundaries. Through the demons and fears exhibited by the two and others in the novel, the diversity in culture can be deciphered, including its role in informing justification for segregation. In is important to understand that ethnic cleansing perpetrated by Generalissimo Rafael Leonidas Trujillo had a rather trivial basis. The decision to target Haitians was inspired by complaints of Haitian thefts. While stopping thefts was imperative, Trujillo real motive was to segregate Dominicans and Haitians in a bid to exert more control. Thus, the little known historical event of racial and ethnic cleansing executed by the ultra-nationalist Generalissimo Trujillo of the Dominican Republic against Haitians in Farming of Bones , embodies the predicament of immigrants persecuted on the basis of racial or ethnic backgrounds worldwide.

Racial and Ethnic Relations between Haitians and Dominicans

Race and ethnicity play a central role in advancing inequality in Danticat’s Farming of Bones. According to Telles (2014), inequality founded on skin color has consistency and robustness compared to inequality of census enthnoracial identification. The latter inconsistency is attributed to large afro-decent populations of Latin America, which makes it difficult to segregate based on color alone. The dynamics at play in relation to contribution of the two to relations between the Dominicans and Haitians are highlighted in Farming of Bones. The Project on Ethnicity and Race in Latin America (PERLA) established the existence of inequalities, injustices, and prejudices driven by ethno-racial differences and their implication on the quest for equality. Contrary to the situation in the US where the politics of race and ethnicity are largely based on color (Pinder, 2010), Latin American’s segregations boil down to cultural differences.

The Farming of Bones depicts the crucial role of cultural differences in aiding the ethnic cleansing of Haitians in the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic. According to Danticat (1998), the Dominicans segregated Haitians based on the inability to pronounce “perejil” correctly. “Many had heard rumors of groups of Haitians being killed in the night because they could not manage to trill their “r” and utter a throaty “j” to ask for parsley, to say perejil” (p. 76). The term is drawn from the name parsley, a herb, spice, and vegetable native to some countries in Latin America. The decision to employ the tactic illustrates the existence of racial and ethnic differences among Latin Americans. There are notable similarities among Dominicans and Haitians in Farming of Bones. The inability of Dominicans to distinguish majority of Haitians based on “pigmentocracies”, where skin color acts as the central axis in social stratification, led to employment of ethnic differences. The effectiveness with which Dominicans executed the little known historical event corroborates the concepts of race and ethnicity being multidimensional and measurable in different ways; and inability of inequality estimates based on ethno-racial classifications to consistently back pigment expectations; and that ethnic and racial segregation is a persistent phenomenon in Latin America (Telles, 2014). On the other hand, the event places into contestation suggestions that majority of Latin Americans are in support of social movements and policies against color segregation. The PEARLA project revealed immense challenges that must be surmounted in deconstructing the persistent concept of pigmentocracies.

Implications of Migration on the Search for Racial/Ethnic Identity

Pinder (2010) posited that ‘whiteness’ is the definitive conceptualization of an American identity. The implication of this prevalent concept is that immigrants, especially of color, face significant challenges when integrating into the American society. In the novel, it is evident that pigmentocracies is deeply entrenched in the same manner. After delivering twins, Senora Valencia was concerned about the color of the children, “Amabelle do you think my daughter will always be the color she is now? My poor love, what if she's mistaken for one of your people?” (Danticat, 1998, p. 9) The concerns corroborate perception of people of color as lesser being, a discourse central to the widening ethno-racial inequality. According to Pinder (2010), the mestizaje project has been central to the elusive American quest to forge a single cultural identity with its culturally and diverse communities. However, perceptions of whiteness as an American identity implied advocates of the mestizaje project received little recognition in the US or Latin America. The historical event in the Dominican Republic and its antecedents are testament to failure of the project.

In Farming of Bones, Danticat (1998) portrays the lives of immigrant Haitians as bleak and full of terror. While cleansing of the Dominican country was culmination of ethno-racial persecution, Haitians were constantly subjected to deplorable conditions. Deaths are common occurrences, and hard work an inescapable routine. The immigrants’ aspirations are limited to their dreams because pigmentocracies policies ensure unequal opportunities for individual growth. Danticat portrays Amabelle experience as an immigrant as permanently scarring, which is evidenced by their inability to move on to new life after escaping the ethnic cleansing in the Dominican Republic. According to Telles (2014), the inequalities, injustices, and prejudices make it impossible for immigrants to forge a new identity, presenting a major challenge to the mestizaje project.

The Historical Event in the Global Context

In reference to the birth situation of the Senora Valencia’s twins, the doctor observes that the unfortunate state of the girl is as if the other tried to strangle them. The doctor observed that, “Many of us start out as twins in the belly and do away with the other …” (Danticat, 1998, p 14). The implication of the observation in the context of the historical event is that Dominicans and Haitians shared a lot, including the same island and resources for survival. The Dominicans were turned against Haitians by the political leadership intent on advancing personal interests. The historical event corroborates assertions advanced in Pinder (2010) about racial and ethnic segregation being political maneuvers with immense negative implications to the concerned communities and society as whole.

According to Pinder (2010), Americanization of American cultural identity led nonwhites to be presumed as inferior, which served as a basis for justification of their segregation. Telles (2014) findings suggest this to be the trend in most societies where pigmentocracies define social stratification. In this regard, the mestizaje project, which seeks to construct homogenous cultural identity face numerous obstacles. The prevalence of ethno-racial discrimination highlighted in Telles (2014) is not limited to Latin America. Accounts of recent racial or ethnic instigated violence are highlighted in Tomchak (2017). The case of Mali in Northern African where ethnic cleansing is a recurring threat is notable. According to Tomchak (2017), the Tuaregs, of an Arab Nomadic group, staged rebellion in 1960s and 1990s. The recurrence of such incidences illustrates the root causes of grievances remained unaddressed through appeasement of inclusion in the military. The Tuaregs, facing increased numbers due to migration from Libya, and a dysfunctional corrupt government, and banking on their military experience, launched a coup in 2012. The coup ignited ethnic violence that despite elections and promises of addressing the root causes and numerous ceasefire deals, continued into 2016. According to Tomchak (2017), a similar trend can be observed in Guinea-Bissau and South-Sudan where the war with shifting political alliances and parties is largely founded along ethnic lines. The recent events are similar to the historical event because of the oppression of minority groups by corrupt and greedy governments.

However, contrary to the historical event where the government targeted Haitians without provocation, the current racial and ethnic conflicts are grounded on the theory of grievance. In the modern world where ethnic minorities are aware of their rights to liberty, government attempts at dictatorship are met with brutal force, including coups. The outcome is often massacre of members of the revolting group by the military, contrary to the historical event where Dominicans were turned against Haitians. All over the world, societies struggle with the deleterious effects of pigmentocracies. Despite the existence of social movements and policies against the vice, little progress has been realized in communities where ethno-racial discriminations are dominant. Therefore, racially driven conflicts are likely to persist in the modern society, implying there are possibilities of the historical event being repeated in another part of the world.

Conclusion

The review of the historical event and its implications on the fight against ethno-racial discrimination shows that society has made little progress in realizing equality for all regardless of racial or ethnic background. Diverse cultures in the global context make formation of a homogenous society a significant challenge. The need for aggressive measures is imperative and must entail a paradigm shift from mainstream social movements and policies. Historical ethnic cleansing events must be brought to light and their effects laid bare to the world to ensure societies become apprehensive of the negative outcomes of racial and ethnic discrimination. Society and its members must be protected from radicalization that leads to ethnic cleansing through adoption of good and inclusive governance that tackles the theories of greed and grievances that are major drivers of ethnic conflicts.

References

Danticat, E. (1998).  The Farming of Bones: A Novel  (Vol. 3). Soho Press.

Pinder, S. O. (2010).  The politics of race and ethnicity in the United States: Americanization, de-Americanization, and racialized ethnic groups . Springer.

Telles, E. (2014).  Pigmentocracies: Ethnicity, race, and color in Latin America . UNC Press Books.

Tomchak, J. (2017). Re-examining ethnic conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa: A new framework for understanding the politicization of ethnicity. Yale University Department of Political Science. Retrieved from https://politicalscience.yale.edu/sites/default/files/tomchak_joseph.pdf.