Racial Profiling in America and Its Effects on Ethnic Groups

Introduction 

Racial profiling is a debatable issue in the United States over the past two decades. It affects all ethnical backgrounds, cultures, and races. The practice focuses on using ethnic backgrounds to determine or reduce criminal activities. Also, racial profiling has been used to justify drug dealers, illegal immigrants, and terrorists. The selection and promotion criterion of employees in corporations is based on the skin color. Most individuals perceive that racial profiling is an abuse of human rights, but others believe it is vital in assisting police to identify criminals. The ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union) and the Rights Working Group established a report that revealed that racial profiling is among the common discriminatory cases in the USA (Bell et al., 2014). Racial profiling mostly affects minority groups in the United States including African-Americans, Hispanics, Mexicans, and low-income earners. 

Minority groups encounter various instances of racial profiling. The ethnic communities face discrimination due to various perceptions of the communities. An example of racial profiling is cross-checking the goods or vehicles of Hispanics along the American-Mexican border to identify illegal immigrants. Another example is investigating the activities of the minorities in areas with high crime rates. Arizona State established SB 1070 in 2010 to regulate the movement of illegal immigrants in the region. The state provided that visitors should use legal documents (Bell et al., 2014). The law administration officials were given the authority to arrest illegal immigrants. The purpose of the Act was to reduce the high immigration rates in Arizona. The Act became a debatable issue across the world concerning the potential act of racial profiling. The Supreme Court justified the Act on the provision of legal documents. Consequently, five states incorporated the law including Georgia, Utah, Alabama, South Carolina, and Indiana (Bell et al., 2014). The immigration law was useful because immigrants were permitted to access the states regarding their color. 

The arguments related to racial profiling are linked to constant racism that is evident in the country’s communities. Further, racial profiling is connected to the rifts between police officers and ethnic communities. Statistical data indicates that African-Americans have the possibility of being arrested or imprisoned as compared to Whites. In 2012, about 60% of the blacks in America were arrested. The ratio of the incarcerated African-Americans to Whites was high. For instance, around 1 out of 15 blacks were in prison. Alternatively, approximately 1 out of 106 Whites were detained (Bell et al., 2014). Also, about one out of three blacks are likely to go to prison after some time. The imprisonment of blacks is 10% longer as compared to blacks (Bell et al., 2014). The police officers assessed the vehicles of African-Americans three times more than the Whites in traffic stops. 

The literature of the study reveals that the underrepresented groups in America face cases on racial profiling. The researchers explain that low-income families, homeless persons, blacks, Hispanics, and Mexicans are victims of racial profiling. However, research on racial profiling is mixed because some researchers claim that Whites undergo discrimination. The purpose of the study is to establish the impact of racial profiling on all ethnic communities in the United States. The capstone project contains a theoretical framework that supports the argument that ethnic communities face discrimination. Racial profiling has become a significant problem in the United States that needs to be addressed. The researcher will provide an in-depth analysis of racial profiling to prompt policymakers to develop reformations. The capstone project does not provide statistical information which can be considered in further research. 

Background 

Historical Perspective 

There are different schools of thought that provide facts on the effects of racial profiling. In the Middle Era, the present profiling term was used to assess the characteristics of suspected heathens. Dr. Bond used profiling to provide details about the British murderer during the 19 th century (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). Subsequently, laws enforcement officers started to use profiling because it was useful in solving crime cases. In 1958, the CDP (Cincinnati’s Police Department) was among the first police divisions to develop infestation campaigns (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). Racial profiling has become a debatable topic among scholars and politicians because they want to understand its impact on ethnic communities. 

There are two perspectives regarding racial profiling. First, there is a perception that racial profiling is beneficial to the administration of security and enhancing policing practices (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). Secondly, some individuals perceive that racial profiling affects ethnic communities negatively. The opponents of racial discrimination base their arguments on the constitution (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). Citizens and researchers believe that racial profiling is an illegal practice because it deprives the civil rights of individuals. Consequently, racial profiling affects the representation of ethnic communities in the US legal structure. 

The opponents of racial profiling perceive that equality policies are not implemented across the ethnic communities. The individuals that face discrimination include low-income households, minority groups, and homeless individuals. Racial profiling involves the activities of corrupt law administrators. The cases recur daily, and there is a need for establishing systematic reformation to correct the issue (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). The authors of the critical race concept provided that racial profiling is a series of discriminatory activities that in common in the US, law, and ethnic backgrounds. 

The proponents of racial profiling support the practice of racial discrimination. They perceive that there are various benefits of racial profiling when conducting policing activities. The proponents argue that blacks are present in areas with high crime rates, violence, and gang-related activities (Gabbidon, Higgins, & Wilder-Bonner, 2013). The supporters of racial profiling provide that the strategy for identifying criminals basing on ethnic background is useful. Individuals believe some ethnic communities including Mexicans or Blacks engage in crime for survival (Gabbidon, Higgins, & Wilder-Bonner, 2013). Policymakers, researchers, and the public use the criminology concept of deterrence as a strategy of decreasing crime. The deterrence concept focuses on increasing punishment for the criminal to reduce the possibility of engaging in crime (Gabbidon, Higgins, & Wilder-Bonner, 2013). The proponents use the facts and theoretical concepts to encourage the practice of racial profiling. 

The proponents claim that African-Americans practice racial discrimination besides Whites. Researchers revealed interesting facts about the practice of racial profiling among blacks. The black proponents have secured employment and acquired quality education. Thus, the African-Americans with universities certificates secure jobs, but those without degrees are unemployed (Gabbidon, Higgins, & Wilder-Bonner, 2013). The blacks exercise discrimination regarding education levels. 

Current Prevalence Rates of Racial Profiling 

Racial profiling is prevalent in all industries in America. Citizens complain that employers choose employees regarding the race. About 57% of Black Americans complained that managers did not give them equal pay and promotion opportunities due to their skin color (Datz, 2017) . Some of the African-Americans have secured employment, but 56% claim that companies disregard their application due to their race (Datz, 2017) . Half of the black population interacts with the police. Therefore, they do not face brutality during traffic stops. Also, 45% of African Americans have not been given a chance to buy or rent houses. As a result, the blacks live in metropolitan and rural areas (Datz, 2017) . Colleges allow 36% of the black population to enroll for courses. Consequently, it has increased the illiteracy rates of African-Americans (Datz, 2017) . Hospitals meet the medical needs of 32% of the African-American population. Most of the blacks have health complications because they cannot access health facilities. Lastly, 19% of the blacks vote and participate in political events in America (Datz, 2017) . The blacks have few representatives in the government, and they cannot voice their concerns. 

Retrieved from: (Datz, 2017) 

The courts solve the cases of the blacks unfairly. Blacks claim that police mistreat them due to their skin color. Police check motorist and drivers who violate traffic rules, but 60% of the blacks claim that officers are brutal. Courts solve cases fairly, but 45% of the African-Americans attest that the judges are unfair. 

Retrieved from: (Datz, 2017) 

The current statistics indicate that police assess 20 million Americans in traffic stops each year. Out of the total population, around 8.2% of the blacks get pulled over which is the highest rank (Boren & Lai, 2017) . However, 7.1% of the Hispanics collide with the police in traffic stops. The Blacks and Hispanics claim that police base their decisions on skin color (Boren & Lai, 2017) . Only 3.8% of the Whites are pulled over in spite of being the main occupants in America. Further, 3.6% of American Indians and 2.5% of the Asians are perceived to breach traffic regulations (Boren & Lai, 2017) . All Whites, American Indians, and Asian are light-skinned which reduces their chances of being pulled over. 

Retrieved from: (Boren & Lai, 2017) 

Problem Statement 

Racial profiling is a primary issue in the United States over three decades. The American government has developed strategies to reduce discrimination including recruiting officers from different communities and offering diversity training. Also, the government has introduced technical tools to combat crime including Tag-Catchers, GIS, and Mobile Data Networks (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). Racial profiling has become a prevalent concern in spite of the government developing mitigation strategies. Therefore, it is essential to determine the effects of racial profiling on ethnic communities considering the proponents and opponents views. 

Racial profiling focuses on the experience and history of blacks in America. Further, the practice is the wrong perspective of Whites to minority groups which influences their discriminatory behavior. Various studies reveal that the number of African-American and Hispanic drivers decreased to 13.5% after several patrols conducted in New Jersey. Previously, the drivers from minority groups were 73.2% of the population (Bell et al., 2014). Researchers have explored racial profiling, but few scholars have focused on the nature of discrimination in America and effects on the ethnic groups. Therefore, the researchers will use a qualitative research approach to establish the impact of racial profiling on minority groups. 

Purpose of the Study 

To establish the nature of racial profiling and its effects of various communities 

Research Question 

The researcher seeks to answer the following question by assessing the past literature and using a qualitative approach: 

How does racial profiling affect ethnic communities in America? 

What is the prevalence rate of racial profiling in America? 

Nature of the Study 

The approach for this research is a qualitative research design. Numerous studies focus on racial profiling and its consequences on American communities. Thus, the researcher will select the reliable and valid resources that provide quality information about the impact of racial profiling on the ethnic groups. The scholar will examine, organize, and record the qualitative data to determine the themes of the subject. As a result, the researcher will gain an in-depth understanding of the effects of racial profiling on the residents of America. The results of the research will raise awareness among the communities that encounter discrimination. Therefore, the groups will address their concern to seek government intervention. The desired effect of the study is to develop an understanding of racial profiling regarding the previous literature to establish reformations in the policing structure. 

Definition of Terms 

Discrimination-the act of treating individuals differently concerning sex, age, or race 

Ethnic-people who have a common origin, culture, background, and language 

Minority groups-a group of individuals who are separated from the community due to the physical and cultural aspects 

Racial profiling-the practice of identifying and mistreating a person regarding the race or color. 

Literature Search Strategy 

The sources of the research include journals and articles. The documents were obtained from various search engines including SAGE, tandfoline, Wiley, ScienceDirect, JSTOR, Springer, emeraldinsight, and PMC. The critical search words included racial profiling in America and the effects of racial profiling on ethnic communities. The researcher used peer-reviewed sources from 2010 to 2019. Also, the scholar selected the sources regarding their quality, reliability, and validity. The data from the sources will be used to establish the findings and conclusions of the project. 

Literature Review 

Research on racial profiling in America is mixed. Researchers have different perceptions about the significant and adverse effects of racial profiling. Scholars reveal that racial profiling is a benefit to police agencies. Alegria investigated the effects of racial discrimination on ethnic groups in America. The researcher discovered that the social and political opinions of racists in the United States are disregarded (Alegria, 2014). Also, the author found that blacks are still encountering discrimination in individual and group levels. The scholar used focus groups as the primary method of collecting data. The participant stated that racial profiling is essential in identifying the criminals and ensuring the establishment of policing techniques (Alegria, 2014). Also, the candidates claimed that minority groups portray behaviors that are unacceptable in the community. The participants agreed that police assess many black drivers as compared to the whites. The researcher found the participants supported racial profiling because it assists law administrators to determine the criminals to enhance security (Alegria, 2014). The author did not use statistical and theoretical data to support the arguments. However, the data is peer-reviewed which improve the reliability of the source. 

Scholars claim that racial profiling has increased the traffic stops of African-American and Hispanic drivers. Black and Hispanic drivers are pulled over as compared to the White travelers. Shjarback et al. (2017) focused on the relationship between the minor representation of ethnic communities in the police division divisions and racial discrimination. The government believes that an increase in the representation of the minority group in the law enforcement agencies can improve the police-citizen relationship. The sample contained 150 domestic police institutions from Missouri and Illinois. Subsequently, the researchers conducted a multiple least squares regression examination to determine the effect of the strategy on interactions between traffic police and the community (Shjarback et al., 2017). The outcomes of the study indicated that there is an insignificant relationship between the increased representation of minority communities and racial conflicts. The recurrence of traffic stops is directly related to the composition of races in the municipal agencies (Shjarback et al., 2017). The researchers failed to use theoretical concepts to support the facts. 

Other researchers attest that members from a similar minority group can be discriminated regarding the skin tone. Police favor light-skinned drivers as compared to the dark-skinned travelers. White (2014) researched the impact of skin tone on the regulation of police activities. The author used nationally representative information to establish the relationship between skin color and traffic stops. The scholar revealed that most of the dark-skinned African-American and Hispanics are pulled over as compared to the light-skinned (White, 2014). White used descriptive methods to establish the relationship between the variables. The scholar did not include a theoretical framework to develop the facts on the impacts of skin-tome on discrimination rates. 

Researchers perceive that African-Americans face discrimination as compared to Whites. The scholars believe that the traffic police practice racial profiling to determine illegitimate drivers. Bell et al. (2014) focused on the prevalence of racial profiling cases among whites and blacks in the 21 st century. The researchers used a sample of 60 qualitative surveys to determine the presence of racial discrimination in the current era. The black participants claimed that they experienced discrimination on traffic stops. The white passengers claimed the traffic police pulled over black drivers (Bell et al., 2014). However, the white participants reported that no traffic violation was present in spite of the police pulling over the blacks. The scholars discovered that the African-Americans fear being pulled over by the trafficker officers. Also, the scholars found that the black participants developed strategies to over their encounters with the traffic police (Bell et al., 2014). The authors concluded that there are still racial profiling cases in spite of the government establishing measures. The researchers only used qualitative methods to assess the data which was inadequate to develop the findings. The researchers used statistical and conceptual data to determine the consequences of racial profiling. However, the research lacked theoretical evidence to support the primary arguments. 

Researchers argue that racial profiling has increased denial of social services. Some amenities such as hotels deny the blacks quality services. Brewster, Lynn, and Cocroft (2014) researched racial profiling cases in the restaurant located in the United States. The findings of the study revealed that the hotel attendants delay meals across ethnic groups. The participants acknowledged that African-Americans did not appreciate restaurant services as compared to blacks (Brewster, Lynn, & Cocroft, 2014). However, the researchers discovered that there was no evidence on the perceptions of the different races. The scholars concluded that blacks experience discrimination when accessing services in the hotels (Brewster, Lynn, & Cocroft, 2014). The researchers did not provide statistical and theoretical evidence to adequately support the primary arguments on the adverse effects of racial profiling. The authors used peer sources to retrieve conceptual data which enhances the reliability of the study. 

Scholars perceive that racial profiling increases psychological distress among individuals from minority groups. Discrimination affects the mental well-being of victims. Brown and Tylka (2011) focused on determining the resilience of African-American after encountering discrimination. The findings of the study revealed that blacks face psychological distress due to racial profiling. The scholars used a strength-based technique to establish the blacks’ resilience to discriminatory messages (Brown & Tylka, 2014). The sample of the research was 290 black college students. The scholars selected the participants from an online database where they answered questions using the survey monkey platform. The aim of using the online mode was to enhance accessibility and efficiency (Brown & Tylka, 2014). The data collected from the participants demonstrated that there is a negative relationship between discrimination and resilience among students who received little discriminatory information. Alternatively, there is no significant relationship between racial profiling and persistence among students who acquire adequate discriminatory messages (Brown & Tylka, 2014). The researchers discovered that racial profiling data influences the self-esteem of the victims. Consequently, the victim experiences psychological trauma which can cause diseases such as depression and stress. The scholars used the descriptive research method to establish the relationship between the variables (Brown & Tylka, 2014). The process was appropriate to provide the audience with adequate data on the subject. Also, the authors used various tools such as HMR (Hierarchical Moderated Regression) to test the correlation between discrimination and persistence (Brown & Tylka, 2014). The researchers provided in-depth information about the subject to enhance the readers understanding. 

Researchers argue that racial discrimination has a significant effect on the health of minority groups. Racial profiling affects the mental health of the victims because they perceive that the community does not appreciate their presence. Carter et al. (2017) conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between racial profiling and health results among members of ethnic communities. The sample was 105 studies that focused on establishing the correlation between discrimination and profiling. The scholars examined the moderating effects on drug abuse, assessment methods, gender, and ethnic differences (Carter et al., 2017). The findings of the study revealed that there is a direct relationship between racial profiling and the health of the victims. Discrimination has a significant impact on the mental health of ethnic communities. The scholars used theoretical, conceptual, and numerical data to support the arguments of the research. The researchers used current and previous information to establish the findings (Carter et al., 2017). Thus, the source provides valid data on the consequences of racial profiling on the health of ethnic groups in America. 

Further, McGregor (2015) supported that police brutality affects the health of blacks and marginalized communities. The researcher claimed that law enforcement officials use excessive force which influences the health conditions of the victims of discrimination. The author attested that the federal, state and local authorities had not mitigated the brutal activities of police officers (McGregor, 2015). The mixed-methods technique was used in the research to determine the effect of the new policies in combating the consequences of racial profiling in Newark. The primary data collection instruments included qualitative interviews, historical assessments, and review of the present health sources (McGregor, 2015). The sample contained 88 archival articles, 1829 health stories, and 10 primary informants. The findings of the research revealed that African-American who encountered brutality had health complications (McGregor, 2015). Therefore, racial profiling has an indirect effect on the physical well-being of the ethnic groups in the US. 

Researchers believe that high rates of discrimination can increase aging rates of the individuals in minority communities. Racial profiling can decrease the life expectancy rates on the ethnic groups. Chae et al. (2014) focused on the impact of discrimination and bias on the life expectancy of black men. The scholars used the LTL (Leukocyte telomere length) to assess the aging levels of the participants. The sample consisted of 92 black men between the ages of 30 to 50 years. The scholars conducted a cross-sectional examination to identify the effect of racial bias on the candidates. Ordinary least regression squares were present in the study to examine the aging rates of participants (Chae et al., 2014). The results of the research indicated that there is a significant relationship between bias and the medical conditions of the African-Americans. The authors revealed that bias caused chronic complications and a decline in health condition among members of racial groups in the United States. The study indicated that the life expectancy for black men was 69.7 years which is lower than that of whites (Chae et al., 2014). The results of the study are valid because the scholars used cross-sectional methods and statistical techniques to assess the numerical data. 

Scholars argue that police are brutal to ethnic communities due to their race. The members of minority groups face harassment when dealing with police officers. Chaney and Robertson (2013) researched the relationship between racism and police brutality. The researchers retrieved information from the NPMSRP database. Also, the scholar examined the perception of the civilians on police and racism. The secondary data of the research was retrieved from 36 narratives of the members of NPMSRP (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). The findings of the study revealed that brutality was high when police handled the racial groups. Further, the research outcomes indicated that the civilians were less biased to the minority communities. The scholars used the grounded framework to reveal that the perceptions of the public towards police officers including brutality, suspicion, and contempt (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). The quantitative research approach was used to distinguish the themes of the grounded theory. Also, the critical race theory was useful in basing the arguments of the study (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). The research provides data that is essential to the project although the scholars used past numerical information on racial profiling. 

Scholars claim that blacks support racial profiling activities. Some African-Americans discriminate their colleagues due to differences in income levels. Gabbidon, Higgins, and Wilder-Bonner (2013) assessed the reactions of wealthy blacks on racial discrimination. Blacks do not embrace the bias activities as compared to other ethnic communities. The researchers examined the NGS (National Gallup Survey) that consisted of conditions on racial discrimination and wealthy African-Americans. The sample of the research comprised 534 blacks where the majority were women. Most of the respondents resided in the southern regions of the United States. The black women had political positions in the region which boosted their finances (Gabbidon, Higgins, & Wilder-Bonner, 2013). The multivariate tests in the research illustrated a significant difference between the wealthy and low-income blacks. The findings demonstrate that the high-income earners in the African-American community perceive that racial profiling is suitable for identifying criminals to establish policing techniques (Gabbidon, Higgins, & Wilder-Bonner, 2013). However, racial bias has a negative influence on the lives of blacks. The researchers did not include theoretical frameworks to provide evidence on the research work. 

Authors argue that continuous discrimination increases depressive signs among the affected groups. Subjection to brutality affects the mental health of the victims because it reduces their self-esteem. Powell, Banks, and Mattis (2017) analyzed the impact of recurrent discrimination o the mental health of African-American men. The scholars revealed that blacks face discrimination every day which facilitates the exhibition of depressive signs among black men. The respondents of the study were 674 men between the ages of 18 and 79 years (Powell, Banks, & Mattis, 2017). The researchers explored the strategies of mitigation the mental health symptoms including forgiveness. The findings of the study indicated that the men who were unforgiving exhibited depressive signs. Alternatively, the men who forgave the discriminators showed positive mental signs. However, the researchers stated the outcomes varied regarding the age of the participants. For instance, there was a significant positive correction between ERD and mental health signs among the men of the ages 18 and 39 years (Powell, Banks, & Mattis, 2017). The scholars concluded that young men take time before forgiving the discriminators as compared to old individuals. Racial profiling affects the mental health of men in ethnic communities. 

In summary, Chaney and Robertson (2013) presented substantial research which focuses on the increase in police brutality due to racial profiling. Also, Alegria (2014), Shjarback et al. (2017), and White (2014) provided in-depth details on the consequences of racial discrimination. Bell et al. (2014) presented peer-reviewed information on the impacts of racial profiling on blacks. Brewster, Lynn, and Cocroft (2014) provided different implications of racial profiling including delivery of poor restaurant services to African-Americans. Brown & Tylka (2011), Carter et al. (2017), and McGregor (2015) indicated that racial profiling affects victims’ health which is a unique approach to the topic. Chae et al. (2014) established a different opinion on the consequences of discrimination. The scholars stated that racial bias affects the life expectancy of black men. Powell, Banks, & Mattis (2017) did not provide adequate evidence on the impact of profiling on the mental health of blacks. Gabbidon, Higgins, and Wilder-Bonner (2013) claimed that blacks support racial bias in spite of being the principal victims. The sources with adequate details are useful in this project. 

The Gap in the Literature 

Prior literature focuses on specific minority communities including African-Americans, Hispanics, and Mexicans. However, there are various ethnic groups in America which include Asians, mixed races, and American-Indians. The current project seeks to focus effects of racial profiling on all the communities in America. Past research has retrieved data ancient sources which could be unreliable to conclude. The researcher will use current data to establish the findings. The previous studies contain inadequate data about the various impacts of racial profiling including an increase in traffic stops, inaccessibility to social amenities and mental health signs. The researcher will apply qualitative research technique to provide an in-depth analysis of the subject. 

Assumptions 

The researcher assumes that high-income earners in the minority groups perceive that their community members engage in crime. As a result, they discriminate low-income individuals. The statement is an assumption that has no evidence. However, the argument is relevant in the study because the researcher wanted to establish groups that practice racial profiling in America. Secondly, the researcher assumed that the activities affected by racial profiling include crime and employment. The scholar selected the areas because most cases on racial profiling are associated with crime and unemployment. Finally, the researcher assumed that the affect communities include African-Americans, Hispanics, and Mexicans. No evidence indicates that the three communities encounter discrimination. The assumptions are significant in this research because the scholar can use the information to support the arguments. 

Delimitations 

The capstone project contains an introduction that provides primary information about the topic. The introductory section enhances the readers’ understanding about the subject. The capstone comprises the background of racial profiling in America. The information entails the historical perspectives of the issue and the current prevalent rates. Therefore, the readers will have a clear understanding after reading the instruction and background sections. Thirdly, the research has presented the literature of the previous researchers clearly. The language in the literature section is simple to every reader who is conversant with English. All the sources are peer-reviewed journals and articles. As a result, the capstone project will have high reliability due to the inclusion of peer data. Further, the scholar selected documents that focus on racial profiling and its consequences. The findings of the project will be specific which will enhance the incorporation of correct mitigation strategies. 

Limitations 

The first limitation of this capstone project is that the qualitative approach limits the sample size. Thus, the researcher will establish the findings using limited data which could be biased. The research might choose the main ethnic communities in America including Blacks, Hispanics, and Mexicans. There is a need for further research to include a large sample of the ethnic communities. Secondly, the researcher will not use field data such as surveys and interviews to retrieve information from the participants. The data from the previous literature can be biased due to alterations and variations which can affect the overall outcome of the current study. 

The Significance of the Study 

The outcome of the present study will fill the literature gap on the impact of racial profiling on the ethnic communities in America. The researcher will concentrate on all minority groups in the region. The project will be necessary for policymakers to implement strategies that can eliminate or discourage racial profiling in America. Policymakers can develop new policies or amend previous regulations to reduce the prevalence rates of racial profiling. Therefore, the police and majority communities in America will change their perception about the minor groups after identifying the adverse effects of discrimination. The mental health of the minority groups can improve after the incorporation of the solutions. The minority groups can be given a platform to voice their concerns after completing this project. For example, the ethnic groups can acquire representation in the Senate. The topic is vital to the social, political, and physical well-being of the American citizens. 

In conclusion, racial profiling has attracted the attention of researchers, students, policymakers, and political leaders over the past decades. Racial profiling affects the ethnic groups in America including Blacks, American-Indians, Hispanics, and Asians. The practice impacts the social, political, and physical welfare of the minor communities negatively. The proponents of the discrimination perceive it has a positive influence, but the opponents disregard it due to its negative consequences. The purpose of this capstone project is to establish the effects of racial profiling on all ethnic communities in America. The research is essential to the ethnic groups, policymakers, and police officers. The interactions between the majority and minority individuals will improve after conducting this project. 

References 

Alegria, S. (2014). Constructing racial difference through group talk: an analysis of white focus groups' discussion of racial profiling.  Ethnic and Racial Studies ,  37 (2), 241-260. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01419870.2012.716519 

Bell, G. C., Hopson, M. C., Craig, R., & Robinson, N. W. (2014). Exploring black and white accounts of 21st-century racial profiling: Riding and driving while black.  Qualitative Research Reports in Communication ,  15 (1), 33-42. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17459435.2014.955590 

Boren, M., & Lai, J. (2017). There’s a way to detect racial profiling, but most states don’t require police to use it. Retrieved from http://media.philly.com/storage/special_projects/racial-profiling-traffic-stop-philadelphia-police-pa-nj.html 

Brewster, Z. W., Lynn, M., & Cocroft, S. (2014). Consumer racial profiling in US restaurants: Exploring subtle forms of service discrimination against Black diners. Sociological Forum , 29 (2), pp. 476-495. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/socf.12093 

Brown, D. L., & Tylka, T. L. (2011). Racial discrimination and resilience in African American young adults: Examining racial socialization as a moderator.  Journal of Black Psychology ,  37 (3), 259-285. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0095798410390689 

Carter, R. T., Lau, M. Y., Johnson, V., & Kirkinis, K. (2017). Racial discrimination and health outcomes among racial/ethnic minorities: A meta ‐ analytic review.  Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development ,  45 (4), 232-259. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jmcd.12076 

Chae, D. H., Nuru-Jeter, A. M., Adler, N. E., Brody, G. H., Lin, J., Blackburn, E. H., & Epel, E. S. (2014). Discrimination, racial bias, and telomere length in African-American men.  American journal of preventive medicine ,  46 (2), 103-111. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074937971300593X 

Chaney, C., & Robertson, R. (2013). Racism and police brutality in America. Journal of African American Studies, 17 (4), 480-505. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/43525523 

Datz, T. (2017). Poll finds at least half of Black Americans say they have experienced racial discrimination in their jobs and from the police. Retrieved from https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/black-americans-discrimination-work-police/ 

Gabbidon, S. L., Higgins, G. E., & Wilder-Bonner, K. M. (2013). Black supporters of racial profiling: A demographic profile.  Criminal Justice Policy Review ,  24 (4), 422-440. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0887403412442890 

McGregor, A. (2016). Politics, police accountability, and public health: civilian review in Newark, New Jersey.  Journal of Urban Health ,  93 (1), 141-153. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11524-015-9998-4 

Powell, W., Banks, K. H., & Mattis, J. S. (2017). Buried hatchets, marked locations: Forgiveness, everyday racial discrimination, and African American men’s depressive symptomatology.  American Journal of Orthopsychiatry ,  87 (6), 646. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5408301/