Re-entry for Drug Offenders

Individuals who have drug use histories or who are convicted of drug crimes face a wide range of punitive policies that restrict their access to social services. Re-entry is the process of returning to the community after leaving prison and ending the incarceration period. The re-entry process for drug offenders is individualized and depends on several factors such as post-release resources, incarceration experience, and re-entering offender’s sentence structure. Depending on various conditions, the re-entering offenders may find their return to the free society a smooth shift or a change covered with seemingly insuperable barriers. To counteract such obstacles, most re-entering offenders need assistance. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, about 1.5 million individuals in the United States were incarcerated in state and federal prisons as of December 2016 (Bronson & Carson, 2019). Most of these individuals will return to their respective communities after finishing their incarceration period. As these offenders change from prison life to live in a community known as offender re-entry, it is vital to understand the essence of this transition for offenders and their families and its implications to the public. This term paper provides an overview of the drug offender re-entry literature and the re-entry programs that enhances effective transition. 

Traditionally, the state, through correctional programming in prison, provided re-entry assistance to drug offenders (Binnall & Alderson, 2019). Also, the state provided re-entry assistance through parole authorities who monitored drug offenders after release. However, recently, faith-based and non-profit organizations have progressively occupied some of the innovative re-entry programs. Binnall & Alderson (2019) also report a recent increase in internet-based re-entry resources, including exoffenders.net and re-entry.net, which provide online resources to re-entering drug offenders. Re-entry programs can be of two forms: strength-based and deficit-based initiatives. The deficit-centred model of re-entry applies actuarial evaluation to identify criminogenic needs and risks of a re-entering individual. Previous researchers have identified gaps in this approach since it focuses only on needs and risks and ignores the skills and talents of the offender. As a result, many re-entry programs have shifted their focus to strength-based initiatives. The strength-based initiative highlights the attributes of drug offenders and draws on the experiences of previous drug delinquents who were successful in their re-entry process (Zhang et al., 2019). Few experiential and empirical evidence support strength-based initiatives with claims that insights and concerns of direct victims of the criminal justice system make the change from prison to society a smoother one. 

Literature Review 

The primary focus of criminal justice research is to determine some of the factors that essentially reduce recidivism on re-entering drug offenders. According to Zhang et al. (2019), human services practitioners are involved in the successful re-entry of released offenders into society. Several existing literature indicates some of the programs that may aid restore the previously prisoned offenders and reintegrate them into society. For this term paper, I searched for different sources published within the last five years as well as older sources that were relevant to the topic of re-entry for drug-offenders in the United States. Sources used in this term paper included government websites and peer-reviewed journal articles. I obtained the existing literature using the following keywords: re-entry, recidivism, prisoner re-entry programs, repeat incarcerations, and criminal justice reforms. 

Theoretical Foundation 

The platform of this study was based on two theories, the trans-theoretical model of change and the general personality and social cognitive learning. The theoretical framework is based on the belief that an individual's exposure to some criminogenic factors influences their ability to repeat incarceration (Oluwaniyi, 2017). Therefore, this theory believes that when these factors are controlled, it could lower the possibility of re-incarceration. Previous reports have suggested that these incidences could be reduced by the application of therapies related to correctional interventions and through a non-therapeutic natural approach. Other theories related to repeat incarceration include the forensic mental health theory and the sociological criminology theory (Oluwaniyi, 2017). The sociological criminology theory argues that society has an essential influence on the ability of an individual to commit a crime. It suggests that living in disadvantageous and vulnerable groups such as ethnic minorities, poor, and young could increase the risk of an individual to crime. Forensic mental health theory relates criminal behavior and the ability of an individual to be reincarcerated with psychological factors such as schizophrenia, low self-esteem, and neuroticism. 

Risk Factors for Repeat Incarceration 

The re-entry of drug offenders is a crucial issue that should be properly managed. During the 2004 state address, the 43 rd US President George Bush urged the citizens to offer chances for those individuals re-entering the community from prisons. According to him, everyone that comes from incarceration deserved a better life. As a result, George Bush proposed a $300 million initiative to help to re-enter offenders by providing opportunities to them, which led to the launch of the Second Chance Act of 2008. Several political, economic, and social factors inspire behaviours that lead to re-incarceration and reconviction of drug offenders (Oluwaniyi, 2017). Many researchers studied factors that may expose ex-offenders to repeat drug crimes. 

Social factors. Western and Simes (2019) conducted a survey on the use of alcohol among male prisoners in the US observed that the primarily high rate of reconviction among the male ex-prisoners in the United States are linked to exposure to drug abuse. The absence of treatment of drug addiction among the prisoners can also accelerate the chances of individuals to re-offend after re-entering the community. Western and Simes (2019) argued that lack of drug abuse treatment makes re-entry programs ineffective and constitutes the crucial threats for efforts made by the government to lower the cases of repeat imprisonment. Zhang et al. (2019) researched the impact of antisocial behaviors on the re-incarceration among young drug offenders in the United States. The scholars tracked the delinquency among the convicts who were victims of community-based incarceration programs. The results of the research indicated that drug offenders with antisocial behaviors are at more risk of being reincarcerated. Guitierrez et al. (2013) substantiated these research results in a meta-analysis they conducted to confirm several risk factors that predict the ability of an offender to be reincarcerated after re-entering the society. They investigated if the hypothesized risk factors affect aboriginal drug offenders (Oluwaniyi, 2017). Their findings indicated that antisocial personality patterns, pro-criminal associates, and criminal history predicted re-incarceration among the drug offenders other than their economic, social, and cultural diversities. Zhang et al. (2019) highlighted other factors that act as catalysts for incarceration, including isolation and stigmatization of the ex-felons, economic difficulties, gender, and age. 

Economic and political factors. A reduction in that national economy is linked with an increase in crime rates (AMS, 2016). AMS (2016) noted a link between economic recession and increase housing challenges, massive unemployment, and poverty (Oluwaniyi, 2017). Oluwaniyi (2017) suggested that the societal pressures and the criminal justice system do encourage behaviors that may send ex-convicts back to jail after re-entering the community. For instance, Oluwaniyi (2017) determined the link between the increases in re-incarceration of ex-convicts in the US to the enactments of tough sentencing and sanction guidelines. The Alcohol Monitoring Systems (2016) identified issues that escalate repeat imprisonment of drug offenders after re-entering the community. These factors include denial of access to essential services such as employment, housing, drug treatment, and medical treatment, and medication. 

Barriers to Re-entry for Convicted Drug Offenders 

People who are convicted due to drug abuse and related felonies face several challenges that restrict them from enjoying some of the social services. Previous studies indicate that these punitive policies affect people of color more than other groups. The burden of these policies falls most severely on women. Phuchongpravech and Chaiwat (2021) argue that ex-convicts of drug abuse are often denied access to housing services. Landlords tend to deny people who are on drug treatment programs, those using illegal drugs, and those convicted of a felony drug crime. The national “One-Strike” eviction policy allows Section 8 landlords or public housing agencies to remove any guest or tenant or any other individual controlled as a tenant who is involved in drug-related crimes ( Sung & Richter, 2006) . The higher education system also acts as a barrier for the ex-felonies to access basic services enjoyed by other people. For instance, in 1999, the Higher Education Act was made to forbid individuals convicted of any drug-related offense from benefitting from financial help to further their education ( Sung & Richter, 2006) . Under this act, any individual convicted of the use and sale of any illegal substance is not qualified to benefit from any work assistance, loan, or grant ( Sung & Richter, 2006) . Between 2001 and 2002, about 48,000 students were excluded from enjoying any form of benefit to further their education since they were ex-convicts of drug offenses ( Sung & Richter, 2006) . Presently, more than 90,000 students have been denied access to this crucial financial help due to the same act. 

The study conducted by Western and Simes (2019) also indicated that Welfare Reform and Food Stamps permanently prohibits drug convicted individuals from getting food stamps or cash benefits. Several states responded differently to this ban, which about 32 states were opting out of enforcing this ban. Other states have modified this ban to deny only those convicted for selling illegal substances ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . Besides, other states have been able to place a time limit to this ban to offer more opportunities to drug offenders. More research indicates that drug-offenders suffer from felon disenfranchisement, which prohibits them from voting in any state within the United States. The disenfranchisement affects their ability to participate as full citizens both outside and inside prison. Ten states in the US disenfranchise all ex-convicts for life; fourteen states prohibit ex-convicts who have finished their jail terms from voting; twenty-nine states exclude those on probation; and 32 states also exclude convicts on parole ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . The states that exclude all ex-felons for life include Wyoming, Virginia, New Mexico, Nevada, Mississippi, Kentucky, Iowa, Florida, Delaware, and Alabama ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . Consequently, about 1.4 million black American residents are excluded from voting through Felon Disenfranchisement. 

According to the research conducted by Mallik-Kane & Visher (2008) , it is essential to begin a re-entry preparation initiative at the beginning of imprisonment and progresses without disturbance into the society. According to him, it is essential to focus on the pre-release program before releasing a drug offender into the community ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . The pre-release program should focus on the individual needs of the convict. The pre-release programs prepare individuals who were drug offenders to be productive members of society ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . The program should equip re-entering drug offenders with essential skills, including both life and occupational skills. The author opined that pre-release initiative helps convicts overcome some of the challenges experienced when they re-enter society. Studies indicate that re-entering drug offenders need more help than they previously did. Mallik-Kane and Visher (2008) indicate that research reduces recidivism by ensuring a successful re-entry of drug offenders into the communities. However, previous research indicates that ex-offenders who were convicted of drug-related crimes find it hard to get employment ( Prendergast, 2009) . The African-American victims suffer the most, and without help, most of them end up being reconvicted after a short period of time. 

Re-entry Intervention for Drug-Abusing Parolees 

Several studies indicate that relapse prevention interventions and cognitive-behavioral therapy lower the risk of drug-offenders being reincarcerated ( Prendergast, 2009) . Individual studies have opined that treatment for gender-specific and heroin abuse programs for women can improve the psychological functioning of convicts and reduce crime and drug abuse ( Prendergast, 2009) . Cognitive-behavioral therapy programs for convicts are meant to change the mindset of offenders and shifts their thinking away from drug abuse and related crimes ( Prendergast, 2009) . The CBT program combines several prevention approaches and helps drug convicts to determine high-risk situations for drug abuse and related crimes ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . The program equips drug offenders with appropriate skills to ensure they cope with these high-risk situations in order to cope in society after re-entry ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . There are various manualized CBT programs that provide quality service to adult offenders, such as Thinking for a Change, Reasoning and Rehabilitation, Moral Reconation Therapy, and the Cognitive Intervention Program ( Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008) . These programs are used in criminal justice but can also be applied as an intervention for drug offenders. 

Drug abusing parolees enter society with several needs that should be addressed to increase their chances of being successful in their endeavors. In addition to disorders related to drug abuse, parolees may need help with mental and medical health problems, family issues, transportation, employment, education, and housing ( Skinner-Osei et al., 2018) . Case management can be used as an intervention to address some of these problems that may arise during the re-entry process of drug offenders ( Skinner-Osei et al., 2018) . Case managers in this situation determine the needs of a client, organize for their treatment, and follow them to determine their progress in the community to ensure the program runs smoothly ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . Case management for drug offenders can be provided within the independent agency, in treatment programs, and probation or parole agencies ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . Treatment Accountability for Safer Communities (TASC) is an independent agency established in the 1970s, which is the most protuberant case management service for the criminal justice ( Skinner-Osei et al., 2018) . A group of scholars conducted a demanding assessment on five TASC initiatives to determine the effectiveness of these programs in reducing crime and drug abuse. The result indicated inconsistency in the effectiveness of five TASC programs, suggesting a variation in chances to part depending on the quality and design of a particular TASC program ( Skinner-Osei et al., 2018) . 

Contingency management is another intervention used to positively reinforce and promote abstinence in drug treatment. Two meta-analyses conducted on contingency management found that twenty to thirty percent of drug use outcomes reduced due to contingency management ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . This intervention works best when an individual voluntarily decides to participate ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . The threat of punishment and coercion does not work best for this intervention since it induces unnecessary resistance from drug convicts. Even though contingency management is a potential approach that can work best for drug offenders, more research should be conducted to determine the appropriate way to apply it ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . Residential treatment is another intervention used in the community to follow the therapeutic community model. This approach concentrates on reintegrating an individual with a lifestyle free of crime and drugs and society of residents and helpful individuals. Most therapeutic community models provide several services that help in the reintegration of the drug offender into the community ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . TC model focuses on treating an individual as a whole as opposed to concentrating on addressing their drug abuse lifestyle. This intervention helps individuals to treat solve their different disparities to ensure they re-enter the community fully ready to survive (Oluwaniyi, 2017) . More research suggested several medications that can be used as a pharmacotherapy intervention to treat drug addictions, such as naltrexone, buprenorphine, and methadone ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . These researches have studies the use of these medications and their outcome in drug offenders. The application of naltrexone yielded a positive result with Federal probationers (Oluwaniyi, 2017) . However, the use of pharmacotherapy has experienced several barriers, especially resistance from several treatment providers and criminal justice agencies ( Treitler & Angell, 2020) . This intervention also has a small research base, which hinders its ability to be used by a wide range of people. 

Significance 

As drug offenders re-enter the free society from incarceration and jail, some tend to be reconvicted after some months. It might be due to some of the issues and barriers experienced during their re-entry process. These barriers might affect them mentally and make them unfit to blend with society smoothly. Most people do not want convicted individuals to be reincarcerated (Oluwaniyi, 2017) . Therefore, they work hard to ensure they blend with society. Research suggests that most people who undergo re-entry programs successfully blend with the community than those who do not benefit from the program. However, it is essential to determine the effectiveness of these programs to reduce the chances of repeat incarceration. This research aims to close this gap by addressing the issue of the effectiveness of these programs in reducing the chances of repeat imprisonment for re-entering individuals (Binnall & Alderson, 2019) . Re-entry programs primarily aim at ensuring that jailed individuals fully blend with the community. This research is essential in ensuring that the discussed barriers are addressed and appropriate programs implemented to produce a full bunch of law-abiding citizens. 

Conducting research on the effectiveness of re-entry programs will expose some of the weak areas that can be addressed to ensure a successful reintegration between a drug offender and the community. It indicates the strong areas that can be maintained to ensure the ultimate success of the process. Besides, a study that explores ways to reduce repeat imprisonment after re-entry is beneficial to the community and the entire society. Throughout the literature, I failed to get existing literature on the effectiveness of re-entry programs implemented in the United States (Binnall & Alderson, 2019) . Therefore, this research aims to close this existing gap by researching the effectiveness of re-entry programs in the US. The study is also important as it may offer an opportunity to study some of the re-entry programs implemented in countries other than the United States. 

Conclusion 

The term paper has given an overview of the issue of re-entry for drug offenders by exploring some of the existing literature in this field. The introduction discusses some of the background information on the topic of study. The theoretical framework of this research is based on the trans-theoretical model of change and the general personality and social cognitive learning. The literature review covered the topic under several subtopics, such as the risk factors for repeat incarceration, barriers to re-entry of drug offenders in the society, and some of the interventions to ensure a successful re-entry of drug offenders. 

References 

Binnall, J. M., & Alderson, M. (2019). Re-entry Processes in the United States. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice . https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.242 

Bronson, J., & Carson, E. A. (2019). Prisoners in 2017.  Age ,  500 , 400. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p16.pdf 

Mallik-Kane, K., & Visher, C. A. (2008).  Health and prisoner reentry: How physical, mental, and substance abuse conditions shape the process of reintegration  (p. 82). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Justice Policy Center. 

Oluwaniyi, E. D. (2017). Effectiveness of prisoner re-entry programs for reduction of repeat incarcerations in Nigeria. 

Phuchongpravech, T., & Chaiwat, T. (2021). Barriers to Prisoners’ Re-Entry into Formal and Informal Labour Market.  International Journal of Business and Society ,  22 (1), 479-495. 

Prendergast, M. L. (2009). Interventions to promote successful re-entry among drug-abusing parolees.  Addiction science & clinical practice ,  5 (1), 4. 

Skinner-Osei, P., & Stepteau-Watson, D. (2018). A qualitative analysis of African American fathers’ struggle with reentry, recidivism, and reunification after participation in re-entry programs.  Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment ,  28 (2), 240-255. 

Sung, H. E., & Richter, L. (2006). Contextual barriers to successful re-entry of recovering drug offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment ,  31 (4), 365-374. 

Treitler, P. C., & Angell, B. (2020). Prisoner Re-entry. In  Encyclopedia of Social Work . 

Western, B., & Simes, J. T. (2019). Drug use in the year after prison.  Social Science & Medicine ,  235 , 112357. 

Zhang, R., Srinivasan, S., Kambath, A., Nnadi, V., Price-Tucker, A., Zhou, A., ... & Escalante, T. (2019). Successful re-entry: A community-level analysis.