Historical literature is important towards the understanding and shaping of values in society. Specifically, literature explores the ways of lives of people from which varied lessons for humanity can be sought. How a society behaves largely depends on the general beliefs that are held in the particular community; which are enshrined in culture and religion. ‘Three Kingdoms’ follows three warring Chinese states related to the demise of the Han dynasty; exploring different aspects of Chinese history, religion, and culture; and the influence they have on the fighting groups. An exploration of religious and cultural beliefs in ‘Three Kingdoms’ shows how these aspects influence the way of life; including the effects of dependency on supernatural beings for decision-making, belief in divine communication and karma, the dedication of temples to spirits, loyalty, and respect for family tradition on daily life.
Religious Beliefs
Religion is one important theme manifested in ‘Three Kingdoms.’ Notably, religion refers to a belief in the supernatural or a system of faith or worship. On the other hand, culture refers to the total beliefs of the members of a given society. Community, moreover, is formed by a group of people who tend to ascribe to similar beliefs. In this case, therefore, the religious beliefs of the community as portrayed in the novel describe parts of the culture of this particular group. In chapter 77, specifically, ‘Three Kingdoms’ explores how Lord Guan reveals a divine presence: In this case, therefore, several aspects of religion are exposed including the dependency on supernatural beings for decision-making; belief in divine communication and karma; and the dedication of temples to spirits.
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First, there is the belief in the judgment of human action by a supernatural being that causes a man to depend on a higher being for decision-making. When Lu Meng offers Sun Quan the plan to attack Guan, for instance, Sun Quan not only agrees but also asks that reference be made to the Book of Changes in order to determine the possible outcome of the war strategies made:
“ Sun Quan agreed and asked Lu Fan to judge the prospects of this plan in the light of the Book of Changes (Roberts, n.d., pg.329).”
Notably, the Book of Changes , also known as I-Ching, is among the earliest classics in China that explains the formation of the universe and man’s relationship to the world. The book, moreover, explores aspects of not just Chinese beliefs in the supernatural but also Chinese medicine (Lu, 2013). Through referring to the Book of Changes , Sun Quan reveals a belief in the supernatural, such that actions made should be guided by a higher being. Further belief in the guidance by a supernatural force is revealed by the consequent comments before the plans for the attack are executed:
“’ The hexagram signifies an enemy fleeing northwest. Well before midnight, Guan is sure to be caught.’ Satisfied, Sun Quan ordered Zhu Ran and Pang Zhang to carry out Lu Meng’s plans (Roberts, n.d, pg.329).”
In this case, thus, it is evident that Sun Quan’s decisions are heavily based on the interpretations of the hexagrams from the Book of Changes that are meant to help him make the most favorable decision.
Secondly, there is the belief in divine communication that affects how occurrences are interpreted and perceived. The first case of divine communication is witnessed above, where Sun Quan seeks guidance from a higher power through the guidance of the Book of Changes and communication is enabled with the hexagrams. Other than this, however, there is further evidence of communication through dreams and visions. After the deaths of Lord Guan and Ping, Wang Fu confesses to foreseeing their defeat in a dream:
“ Inside the town of Mai, meanwhile, Wang Fu, trembling and fearful, asked Zhou Cang, “Last night our Lord came to me in a dream. Covered with gore, he stood before me. As I questioned him, I woke with a violent start. What does it signify?”(Roberts, n.d, pg.332)”
The meaning of his vision above is soon revealed with the reports of the passing on of their leader and the southerners calling for their surrender: In response to the unfortunate occurrences, both Wang Fu and Zhou Cang meet their untimely ends, and the town is conquered by the Southerners. The appearance of Lord Guan in a dream to Wang Fu signifies a premonition of these events following the slaying of their leader and his son.
Thirdly, there is the belief in Karma; that a person’s actions in their previous or current states of existence tend to decide their fate in a future existence. Buddhism, specifically, accepts the doctrine of Karma in a sense that makes it religion based on unexplainable faith (Siderits, 2017). ‘Three Kingdoms’ reveals the existence of both Buddhism and Karma. Buddhism is revealed through the vivid description of an old monk named Pujing who lives on Jade Springs Hill. The monk is described as being the abbot of Zhenguo Temple who had built a residence on the hill due to his attraction to the beautiful scenery: He also found calm in daily meditation on the hill through the solace in which he existed. Interestingly, he helps to reveal the role of Karma in the society in the novel when Lord Guan’s soul appears to him seeking vengeance-“Return my head,” a voice said (Roberts, n.d, pg.332). In response, the monk says:
“ Now you cry out for your head, having met your death at the hands of Lu Meng. From whom shall Yan Liang, Wen Chou, Cao Cao’s six guards, and the countless others whom you killed seek their heads (Roberts, n.d., pg.333)?”
Through the above response, it is evident that Lord Guan’s pays for his actions in a previous existence. Since his death is not entirely based on his pure innocence, the monk explains that he seeks vengeance in vain; because other ‘innocent’ souls have perished by his hand:
“ In a flash Lord Guan realized the truth and, bowing his head in submission to Buddha’s law of karma, he departed (Roberts, n.d., pg.333).”
Consequently, there is the recognition that Lord Guan not only submits to Buddhism and the law of Karma but that his life and death, too, are evidence of the belief and related consequences.
Other than the above, there is also the commemoration of respectable departed souls as gods through the building of temples and giving of offerings in their honor. Specifically, it is notable that “(after that), he frequently manifested himself in (a divine form) on Jade Springs Hill to afford protection to the common people. And the local dwellers showed their gratitude by building a temple on the summit, where they made offerings each season (Roberts, n.d., pg.333).” Temple-building in China is described as a religious process aimed at establishing a link between the people and spirits (Chan, 2005). Consequently, this reveals not just the Chinese belief in spirits, but also the dedication of temples to them.
Cultural Beliefs
Closely related to religion, culture is also evident in ‘Three Kingdoms.’ Particularly, there is the pursuit of moral behavior as guided by Confucian ethics. Notably, Confucianism is a major moral system in China; thus guiding the decisions and actions of most including, for instance, appropriateness for Liu (Besio & Tung, 2007, pg.27). In this case, an important element in Confucianism is the acceptance of values and norms of behavior in basic social institutions and human relationships. There is, for instance, a set of defined roles through which each member has a mutual obligation to another. Through pursuing the right actions, therefore, people could create a perfect society (Richey, 2008). Several aspects of moral behavior and Confucianism are evident in ‘Three Kingdoms,’ including respect for family tradition and loyalty.
One of the Confucian ethics evident in ‘Three Kingdoms’ and relevant to culture is that of respect for family customs. Accordingly, it is realized that appropriateness, which is the right thing to do, is essentially determined by rights and customs. In this case, the rights of the Zhou dynasty are based on the Confucius structure that is modeled on family: People should hold their rightful positions in society (Besio & Tung, 2007, pg.26). In this regard, a father, for instance, shall hold their rightful position as so; in the same way a son should (Besio & Tung, 2007, pg.26). ‘Three Kingdoms,’ therefore, pursues various strategies to support the rightful, traditional position of Liu Bei as the successor of the Han. One of these strategies is the portrayal of Liu as a righteous leader:
“ A scout reported: “Cao Cao’s main force is camped at Fan. They’re gathering boats and rafts to cross over here today.” “We can defend ourselves, (but with such a multitude on our hands we’re barely covering a minimal distance) a day (Roberts, n.d., pg.182).”
The above is the commander’s comments to Liu, for instance, who goes ahead to propose that they should abandon some of Liu’s people to minimize the danger they are all exposed to. In response, Liu says:
“ The human factor is the key to any undertaking. How can we abandon those who have committed themselves to us (Roberts, n.d., pg.182)?”
The response is not only emotional but also memorable, serving to portray Liu in positive light henceforth; as a leader who genuinely cares for his people. Through portraying this view of Liu, ‘Three Kingdoms’ serves to show his rightful position as the legitimate successor of Han.
Another Confucian ethics evident in ‘Three Kingdoms’ and relevant to culture is that of loyalty. Specifically, it is notable that according to Confucius, one should always pursue loyalty and trustworthiness to others especially as it relates to the words that they say (Besio & Tung, 2007, pg.31). Reading the ‘Three Kingdoms,’ moreover, it is revealed that Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei take an oath of brotherhood, swearing to pursue the protection of the common people of the land and duty to the Emporer; as well as die on the same day. According to the oath, they further swear that “May Heaven and man scourge whoever betrays appropriateness or forgets kindliness (Besio & Tung, 2007, pg.32).” In this case, thus, it is evident that in pursuing brotherhood as a cultural element, the three are guided by the Confucius ethics that largely guide cultural values and beliefs among the specific community. In adherence to the oath of brotherhood, moreover, upon the death of Guan Yu, Liu Bei seeks his own demise:
‘“ I took an oath of brotherhood with Lord Guan and Zhang Fei,” Xuande answered. “We vowed to die as one. With Lord Guan gone, what meaning do wealth and honor have for me (Roberts, n.d., pg.337)?”’
Although urged to guard his own health, therefore, Liu, through these words, reveals the respect he holds for loyalty as relates to the brotherhood he shared: In order for one to co-exist with others in society, there is the need, therefore, to uphold duty to others as they similarly are expected to do.
The above features are not only relevant to the values of Confucianism evident in the characters but also further reveal perceptions of heroes according to Confucian ethics. In this regard, it is evident that in order to promote the right cultural values, appropriate messages should be communicated by those the members of a society look up to (Wright, 1960, pg.173). Notably, heroic stories often tend to exalt the strong personalities of individuals to the extent of ignoring existing human laws. In such instances, therefore, heroes may often be portrayed as not only physically strong and brave but also above the law; often acting only based on their own instincts. Confucians, nonetheless, recognize that this approach is detrimental to not only respect for authority but also respect for family (Wright, 1960, pg.173). In this regard, therefore, Confucian ethics does not promote stories where heroes take matters into their own hands, for instance. As a result, ‘Three Kingdoms’ promotes heroism through characters that uphold the cultural values of Confucianism important for the creation of an ideal society. Lui, therefore, is portrayed as having an immense value for loyalty to brotherhood, as well as a genuine concern for the people: qualities that are emphasized and contribute to his liking by the people he leads.
An exploration of religious and cultural beliefs in ‘Three Kingdoms’ shows how these aspects influence the way of life. Several aspects of religion are exposed including the dependency on supernatural beings for decision-making; belief in divine communication and karma; and the dedication of temples to spirits. Dependency on supernatural beings for decision-making, for instance, affects how strategies in war are made and executed. On the other hand, the dedication of temples to spirits influences the way of worship among the Chinese. Other than these, cultural aspects are also evident considering Confucianism including respect for family customs and loyalty. Liu, for instance, is portrayed as a righteous leader to promote and support his rightful (traditional) position as the successor of Han. Belief in family customs, in this case, influences the determination of leaders in society. Additionally, loyalty causes Liu to wish for his own death after the demise of Guan Yu, revealing how brotherhood and adherence to a person’s word are highly upheld in this community. These values are notably particularly important for heroes in Confucianism. Evidently, therefore, the way of life of any society is greatly interconnected with the cultural and religious values of the particular community.
References
Besio, K., & Tung, C. (Eds.). (2007). Three Kingdoms and Chinese Culture . State University of
New York Press.
Chan, S. C. (2005). Temple-building and heritage in China. Ethnology , 65-79.
Lu, D. P. (2013). Influence of I-ching (Yijing, or The Book Of Changes) on Chinese medicine,
philosophy and science. Acupuncture & electro-therapeutics research , 38 (1-2), 77-133.
Richey, J. L. (Ed.). (2008). Teaching Confucianism . Oxford University Press.
Roberts, M. (Trans.). (n.d.). Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel [Adobe Digital Editions].
Siderits, M. (2017). Buddhism as philosophy: an introduction . Routledge.
Wright, A. F. (1960). The Confucian Persuasion (Vol. 102). Stanford University Press.
