Today, the United States stands divided on a wide range of issues. These divisions are not union. The nation has historically been divided on such issues as slavery and the need to provide state governments with more autonomy and to limit the authority of the federal government. Before it established itself as a strong union of states, the US was confronted with challenges that threatened to tear it apart. The North and South adopted different positions on various issues and the differences threatened to plunge the nation into disunion. 1 While the country avoided a total collapse, sectionalism did arise. The emergence of sectionalism set the stage for the Civil War which pitted the North against the South. Slavery is among the factors that created and escalated the sectionalism. In this paper, the social and political changes which created a sense of sectional difference among Southerners and Northerners are discussed. The paper also offers a description of the political events that amplified the sense of sectional difference. An argument that long term social and economic changes are to blame for the Civil War is also made.
Social and political changes responsible for sectionalism
It is during the antebellum period that the calls for slavery to be abolished became stronger. The American North launched a campaign to free the thousands of slaves who had been denied liberty. The call for the abolition of slavery is one of the social changes that led to a sense of sectional differences between the American North and South. The North believed that it was supporting a just cause that would deliver slaves from oppression. On the other hand, the Southerners were convinced that they were protecting an institution that was vital to its economy and that of the larger United States. Essentially, the American South and North were divided on the moral mandate of the nation. 2 They both agreed that they needed to preserve the covenant that the Founding Fathers had established through the Constitution. They could not agree on the issue of slavery.
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The changes that the governance of the United States underwent are among the political factors that caused divisions and gave birth to the sense of sectional differences between the North and the South. In the previous years, the federal government had grown stronger. This government enjoyed strong support from the North. The South was fiercely opposed to the federal government. States in the South regarded the federal government as a threat to their autonomy and their interests. Such states as South Carolina were the most vocal in their opposition to the federal government (27). Calls were made for the residents of these states to stand up and protest against the tariff that had been imposed by the federal government. As the federal government gained strength, the state authorities feared that they would lose their power. The involvement of the federal government in the affairs of the states in the South inspired fear and suspicion. The South launched a campaign through which it sought to convince the residents that the North was leading the world to oppose and undermine its institutions. 3 Eventually, the US was divided into two sections, with each section believing that it was unique and fundamentally different from the other.
In the initial years following the establishment of slavery, the slaves were submissive and made no real attempt to regain their freedom. However, this began changing as the slaves received encouragement from the Northerners who led the campaign to convince the South to do away with slavery. This is another social change that is responsible for the sectionalism. The South understood that slavery played an important role in its economy. Without the labor provided by the slaves, the Southern economy would undoubtedly collapse. The North had moved away from agriculture and therefore had no real need for slave labor. The abolitionists from the North faced accusations that they intended to sabotage the economy of the South. Some factions within the North also lashed out against the abolitionists arguing that the abolishment of slavery could set the stage for the collapse of the United States. 4 The end result was that the divisions between the North and the South became deeper.
It is clear that slavery is one of the forces that shaped the relationship between the North and the South. While slavery was largely confined to the South, it threatened to spill over into the North. This is another change that caused the sectionalism. The North feared that the South would impose slavery on Northern states. 5 It was argued that such an imposition would amount to a violation of the democracy that had thrived in the North. The North regarded slavery as an institution that was inconsistent with the values and policies on which democratic governance is based. The North sought to keep slavery out by all means. It even resorted to presenting a bill in Congress through which it hoped to ensure that slavery would not be established in new territories that the US had acquired. 6 The strong sentiments that the South and North held regarding slavery clearly widened the gap between the two territories. While the South desired to spread slavery into the North and new territories, the North hoped to contain the spread of slavery at the very least or have it abolished altogether.
The social order that was in place in the South is another force that created conditions that allowed for sectionalism to occur. In the South, a hierarchal system had been established. 7 The white man sat at the top of the system. On the other hand, the slave sat at the bottom and had no say in affairs that concerned them. While white women occupied a position above the slaves, they still had to submit to their men. The hierarchal system that defined almost all elements of the Southern culture stood in sharp contrast to the principles of liberty and equality that the North stood for. The North was opposed to slavery and there were some factions within the North that even called for women to be accorded the same treatment that men receive. 8 The North set out to convince the South to abandon practices and beliefs that were deeply entrenched and had defined Southern life for years. This was indeed a daunting task. The North failed to dismantle the beliefs and practices of the South. It only managed to instigate a conflict with the South. The two sections differed fiercely on the question of slavery and this can be blamed on the fact that the South had adopted traditions that could not be changed overnight.
The Constitution of the United States set out principles and guidelines that would govern how the nation is administered and the relationship between the government and its people. While it provided the nation with direction, the Constitution also set the stage for the sectionalism. There are a number of provisions which caused divisions between the North and the South. One of these provisions regards the amount of tax to be paid by a state. The constitution stipulated that a state would remit tax based on the size of its population. It went further to define the population as a combination of free persons and other persons who were not necessarily free. 9 This provision caused the North and the South to differ on how to treat slaves. The South argued that they were mere property while the North held that slaves were complete humans who should be involved in politics and governance. 10 The North and the South were unable to adopt a common position on the proper way to treat slaves. The Constitution bears part of the blame for this
Political events that exacerbated the sectionalism
There are a number of political events that took place during the antebellum period which had the effect of escalating the sectionalism. Political competition is one of these factors. The leaders of the South and the North were involved in a political war for dominance. This war centered around the issue of slavery. In an effort to safeguard slavery, the South resorted to bullying and intimidation of their Northern counterparts. They had hoped to convince the North to abandon its anti-slavery stance. The Southerners used the threat of disunion to obtain concessions from the North. Both the North and the South feared that disunion would mark the end of the United States. By using disunion as a threat, the South had hoped to scare the North into conceding. The North responded to the threats from the South by claiming that they preferred “disunion to submission.” 11 The political competition only served to widen the rift between the North and South on the issue of slavery. Each party was convinced that the position that it had taken on slavery was correct. It was simply impossible for any party to make concessions or consider the position held by the other. The ultimate result was that the sense of sectional differences only grew stronger.
Another political event that deepened the rift between the North and South was the tendency by the North to yield to the demands of the South. While the South refused to make concessions on the issue of slavery, it kept demanding that the North make compromises. 12 For instance, the North softened its stance on slavery as a result of pressure exerted by the South. The constant concessions that the North made gave rise to feelings of betrayal and frustration among such Northerners as William Lloyd Garrison. Garrison desperately wished to see an end to slavery. He even threatened to lead the North in seceding from the United States. 13 It was unlikely that the North would break away from the rest of the nation. It has been mentioned above that both the North and the South were united in their fear of disunion. It must be that Garrison understood how much the South dreaded disunion and he hoped that the threat of secession would eventually abolish slavery.
The efforts by such individuals as John Calhoun which sought to keep the North and the South separate and independent sections of the United States are another political development that exacerbated sectionalism. Calhoun understood that disunion would spell catastrophe for both the North and the South. Instead of calling for the two sections to separate into independent nations, he urged the South to support sectionalism. 14 He believed that the United States would only become strong through sectionalism. Calhoun reflected the feelings and thoughts of many in the South who did not want to see the Union disintegrate but also did not wish to make concessions. It is the efforts of individuals like Calhoun that caused the North and the South to hold on to their identities even more closely. None was willing to compromise for the sake of the other.
The North used different means to convince the South to abandon slavery. They appealed to Congress and attempted to secure the support of the Southern leaders. All these attempts proved futile. The North was growing increasingly desperate. The patience of the North was becoming thin and in 1859, John Brown launched a raid in Virginia 15 . The aim of the raid was to free the slaves that were being held and to send a signal to the South that the North’s patience had been exhausted. The desperate measures that the North took only served to worsen the sectionalism. The South became convinced that the North wished to violate its autonomy by meddling in its affairs. The South believed that the North was keen on orchestrating the disintegration of the Union and that the North wished to violate the constitutional rights of the South. It is clear that the desperate actions of such Northerners as John Brown had the effect of widening the rift between the North and the South.
The Union wished to expand its size by admitting new states. Missouri is one of the states that sought admission into the Union. Before it was admitted, it was required to grant liberty to all slaves and to institute legal provisions that would safeguard the freedoms of all those born after its admission into the Union. 16 This requirement was fronted by the North. To support their case, the Northerners cited religious and constitutional provisions. They also used morality in their effort to impose the requirement mentioned above on Missouri. 17 The Southerners protested and even expressed willingness to see the Union disintegrate or a war breakout. The two sides were sharply divided on whether Missouri should free its slaves. The debate over the admission of Missouri into the Union is another political event that had the effect of exacerbating the sectionalism.
Slavery has defined American history to a great extent. Virtually all elements of American society have been affected in one way or another by slavery. The 1824 presidential election is one of the issues that were shaped by slavery. The then President John Quincy Adams partnered with Richard Rush in his bid for re-election. 18 The abolishment of slavery formed the bulk of his campaign agenda. He represented the feelings and thoughts of most Northerners. On the other hand, the South was represented by Jackson who joined hands with Calhoun. 19 They ran on a pro-slavery ticket. The presidential contest only served to divide the nation further. The South maintained that it should be permitted to enjoy the labor that slaves provided while the North called for the nation to move away from slavery and deliver liberty to the thousands of slaves who were mostly working in the South. The sectionalism only grew stronger as each side stood its ground.
Long term social and economic changes and the coming of the Civil War
The Civil War left a lasting mark on the face of the United States. There are a number of factors that have been cited as being responsible for the war. As expected, slavery is among these factors. The war pitted the slaveholding North against the abolitionist South. The Civil War was caused by long term social and economic changes. While it is true that there are some isolated incidences that defined how the war unfolded, the impact of these incidences was rather limited and insignificant. The changes mentioned in an earlier discussion are the main factors responsible for the Civil War. The strong traditions that had been adopted in the South and the emergence of a new culture in the North played important roles in stoking conflict and causing the War. As mentioned earlier, the South had established an elaborate hierarchal system whose stability relied on the institution of slavery. The Southerners believed that the slaves were not sufficiently civil to determine their own fate. 20 They had to submit to the authority of the white man. The beliefs and practices that the South adopted had been inherited from the British. This means that the traditions had become part of the Southern identity. On the other hand, the North adopted new beliefs that allowed them to recognize the equality of all men. 21 The Northerners regarded the slaves as equal human beings that deserved respect and freedom. The traditions of the South and the North had been in place for years and for this reason, the argument that long term changes caused the Civil War is valid.
The strongest support for the argument that long term social and political changes were responsible for the Civil War lies in historical facts. The strong foundations of the traditions and beliefs of the South and the North that have been examined in the discussion above are among these facts. These traditions and beliefs are strong enough to cause a war of the scale of the Civil War. It is unlikely that any single event can cause millions of people to rise up in arms against one another. It is true that there have been instances in history where isolated events spark wars. However, even in these cases, there were some underlying long term social and capital changes that played a role. The possibility that some single isolated incident caused the US to go to war against itself can be ruled out with confidence. It is just simply impossible for a single person or incident to offer Americans enough reason to place their future and destiny on the line. Most Americans feared disunion and while they maintained their uniqueness, both the North and the South understood that disunion would deliver no benefits for any party. This makes it even more unlikely that a single incident or a certain group of events provoked the North and the South to attack one another. Therefore, long term social and political changes should shoulder all the blame for the Civil War.
In conclusion, the United States is a model for democratic governance. It has risen to a position where it enjoys the envy of the world. The US has made costly sacrifices in its rise to the position that it occupies today. Sectionalism is among the sacrifices that the nation made. The nation was deeply divided on a number of issues which included slavery and the autonomy of the state governments. The political leaders did little to promote closer ties between the North and the South. There are certain political developments that had the effect of exacerbating the sectionalism. The US needs to learn from its past. It should adopt measures to promote unity and build consensus. The nation also needs to be wary of sectionalism. As the Civil War proved, differences can lead to costly wars.
Bibliography
Howe, Walker Daniel. What Hath God Wrought? The Transformation of America, 1815-1848. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Varon, Elizabeth. The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789-1859. Chapel Hill: University Of California Press, 2008.
