Jealousy is one of the emotional experiences that human beings encounter in their interactions with others. It may occur in romantic, friendly, workplace, and friendly relationships. However, for the purpose of this paper, the primary focus will be on its incidence in romantic relationships usually in the form of sexual jealousy. Psychologists have shown that the first fight that romantic couples experience arises because of jealousy hence it is undoubtedly natural. It is evident that sexual jealousy has been a primary factor that may lead to the end of a relationship. The feeling develops when an individual sense that a cherished bond or connection with a lover is threatened usually by the fear that the romantic partner may find a replacement. Most people feel jealous occasionally and on a mild basis, but there are those who may experience it at a pathological level which may be dangerous for the individual, their partner, or the suspected replacement. Psychologists have observed and researched the different ways in which jealousy particularly in romantic relationships are presented. The following investigative report provides a review of the recent findings on the evolution of sexual jealousy among men and women along with its depiction in heterosexual and homosexual relationships.
Jealousy in Different Sexes
Both men and women alike demonstrate significant levels of sexual jealousy. However, public opinion is split on the degree of jealousy depicted some may indicate that women are more likely to depict frequent incidences at the slightest provocation (Buss et al., 1992). The opponents would identify that men are more likely to have more dangerous cases of sexual jealousy as they may become violent towards their romantic partner or the person believed to pose the threat in the relationship (Edlund et al., 2018). The study conducted by Buss, Larsen, Westen, and Semmelroth (1992) sought to identify that indeed sex differences in jealousy usually emerged in human beings as solutions to the respective adaptive problems that the sex may encounter. The issues of concern include what would be more upsetting sexual or emotional infidelity, the physiological responses, and the effect of being in a committed sexual relationship upon the activation of jealousy (Buss et al., 1992). The study revealed that during the activation of jealousy distinct sex differences were evident.
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Physiological differences are a critical concern that has critical effects on the nature of behavior of men and women when presenting with sexual jealousy. It is evident that human beings are amongst the myriad of mammals with internal female fertilization and gestation. The study by Buss and cohort (1992) showed that this biological characteristic brought about high levels of uncertainty in the paternity of offspring by the males. As a result, male sexual jealousy was brought about as a solution to this adaptive problem. Although women do not have maternity uncertainty, they are at risk of loss of time, commitment, and investment resources from a male (Buss et al., 1992). In this regard, women demonstrate sexual jealousy as a solution of protecting the investment of the man on herself and her offspring. Therefore, the events that trigger sexual jealousy in men and women as different owing to the adaptive problems arising from human evolution in the mating context.
Heterosexual and Homosexual Jealousy
The nature of men and women is depicted as an integral factor in the activation of sexual jealousy in romantic relationships. It is seen that being jealous is an emotional state that arises from a perceived threat of the relationship. Harris (2002) acknowledges the findings depicted by the previous authors on the sex differences in jealousy activation. Harris (2002) has shown that the study failed to address an important concern in the quest to identify the responses that individuals make regarding the infidelity of a romantic partner. In this case, when heterosexual couples were provided with forced-choice responses on hypothetical infidelity, sex differences were evident (Harris, 2002). However, when participants were asked to recall personal experiences of actual infidelity, there was no gender differences (Harris, 2002). The study has been used to cast doubt over the hypothetical measures that researchers in the past have used in exploring sexual jealousy.
In a bid to understand the nature and scope of gender differences in sexual relationships, it is important to explore all sexual inclinations. Harris (2002) reviews the work of prominent evolutionary psychologists who recognize that sexual inclinations for homosexuals differ from those of heterosexual individuals of the same sex. As a result, the critical study of the homosexual relationships will provide greater understanding of gender differences in the activation of jealousy (Harris, 2002). It is evident that the fundamental differences of sexuality among men and women are the primary factors that prompt sexual compromise in heterosexual relationships. However, in the homosexual relationships, there is no need to compromise hence providing greater insight in their undiluted state (Edlund et al., 2018). On the one hand, homosexual men are depicted to experience unsuccessful long-term sexual relationships due to sexual jealousy. Harris points out that the all men are innately wired to want sexual variety. The primary difference between the heterosexual and gay men is that the latter are more likely to find ready and willing suitors for casual sex and incidence that will make their mates more sexually jealous (Harris, 2002). In this regard, both gay and straight men are likely to demonstrate high levels of jealousy in regards to sexual infidelity as opposed to emotional infidelity.
The study went further to identify the various similarities in the lives of heterosexual and homosexual individuals. Both identified the importance of a live-in partner as being important to them with affection seen as a critical trait in the partner (Harris, 2002). However, through empirical research where heterosexuals and homosexuals were asked to rank the factors that are most important in a romantic relationship, it was found that the two groups had significant differences. Evidence showed that heterosexual men and women value sexual exclusivity as opposed to gay men and lesbians (Harris, 2002). Social-cognitive theorists identify that individuals are prone to jealousy in domains that are especially important to them. Therefore, jealousy will arise in a response to threats to the rewards or self-concept of a relationship.
Effects of Jealousy
Jealous behavior is one that has also split public opinion where on the one hand it can show commitment of an individual to maintain strong bonds with their partner. On the other hand, it is seen as a gateway to trouble in the romantic relationship and may create dysfunction between the interactions of the couple (Savarin et al., 2001). The extensive research carried out on men and women as to the behavior they present during jealousy activation, it has become apparent that the biological differences are a primary factor for the arising jealousy. Men are at risk of investing resources unknowingly in the offspring of a rival (Edlund et al., 2018). Women on the other hand suffer from post zygotic investments before conception can yield fitness benefits. As a result, men and women will differ in their response to sexual and emotional infidelity (Sagarin et al., 2001). The numerous studies carried on this issue have brought to light the fact that psychological responses are very strong when a person feels jealous. However, there is little known about the physiological changes that take place.
The review of the effects that jealousy has on the individual is particularly important in developing measures that will lead to effective coping methods. It is evident that men and women are driven by innate factors that prompt them to seek assurance of fidelity. Ritchie and van Anders (2015) conducted an investigative study to identify testosterone response in various jealousy-provoking situations including a passionate kiss with an attractive person, a neutral conversation with a co-worker, or a flirtatious conversation with an attractive person (Ritchie & van Anders, 2015). Findings showed that women demonstrated a larger increase in testosterone in the flirtation condition relative to the neutral condition while the kissing condition was intermediate (Ritchie & van Anders, 2015). On the other hand, the male participants of the study demonstrated no significant effects in the various conditions. The Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds provides an explanation to the responses shown (Ritchie & van Anders, 2015). The flirtation condition elicited a ‘competitive’ testosterone response while the kissing condition portrayed responses consistent with defeat.
Conclusion
Sexual or romantic jealousy is an emotion or feeling that arises when an individual perceives that a valued relationship is under threat and could be lost to another person. In this case, the individual who presents with sexual jealousy believes that their preferred romantic partner has found a more suitable person to enter into a romantic relationship. Evolutionary psychologists investigated thoroughly the cause for the arising jealousy and found that the innate biological differences of men and women have been a major factor in the activation of jealousy. The findings have also shown that the heterosexual and homosexual individuals have contrasting experiences of jealousy due to similarities of the romantic partners. However, the differences become apparent between the two groups where the heterosexual couples are more inclined towards maintaining monogamous relationships as opposed to the gay men and lesbians who may opt for casual sex encounters. The testosterone levels in men and women also change during arising sexual jealousy.
Reflection
The above research paper has been developed to provide insight on the issue of sexual jealousy. It is evident that the romantic relationships are an important institution within the society. Evolutionary psychologists have identified that the men and women have distinct jealousy-provoking situations which are solely influenced by the innate differences. However, further research shows that the use of forced-choice methodology is a major limitation in the development of findings. The researchers fail to consider the real-life situations and previous experiences of the participants of the study. The comparison between the heterosexual and homosexual individuals supports this belief where there are stark differences between the two groups. For instance, the heterosexual men are seen to identify that sexual infidelity would be more upsetting than emotional infidelity while the reverse is true for gay men. It becomes clear that the issue of sexual or romantic jealousy is more complex than previously thought. It is also evident that the members of specific societies are likely to report emotional infidelity as far worse as seen by over 70% of men in China, Netherlands, and Germany. The findings provided in the above study is not final as it is expected that further research will provide conclusions as to why there are gaps in the study.
References
Buss, D. M., Larsen, R. J., Westen, D., & Semmelroth, J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological science, 3 (4), 251-256.
Edlund, J. E., Buller, D. J., Sagarin, B. J., Heider, J. D., Scherer, C. R., Farc, M. M., & Ojedokun, O. (2018). Male Sexual Jealousy: Lost Paternity Opportunities? Psychological Reports, 0 (0), 1-18.
Harris, C. R. (2002). Sexual and romantic jealousy in heterosexual and homosexual adults. Psychological Science, 13 (1), 7-12.
Ritchie, L. L., & van Anders, S. M. (2015). There’s jealousy… and then there’s jealousy: Differential effects of jealousy on testosterone. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 1 (2), 231-246.
Sagarin, B. J., Becker, D. V., Guadagno, R. E., Nicastle, L. D., & Millevoi, A. (2003). Sex differences (and similarities) in jealousy: The moderating influence of infidelity experience and sexual orientation of the infidelity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24 (1), 17-23.
