Summary of Weston's "A Rulebook for Arguments"

Introduction 

To some people, an argument may seem pointless and unpleasant because to them; it is just a way of expressing prejudices in a different form. However, according to Weston, an argument is not merely a dispute but an attempt to provide support to specific opinions with reasons. As such, arguments are essential because they approach of trying to discover which ideas are better than others. In this sense, argument acts as an inquiry means. Also, an argument is essential because it explains and defends how a conclusion is arrived at 1 . Thus, the basis of understanding an argumentative essay is through using arguments both as inquiry means and as a mode of defending and explaining conclusions. 

Composing a Short Argument 

According to Weston, the rules for creating short arguments include first, to distinguish between conclusions and premises. Conclusions are statements supported by reasons while premises are statements that provide the reasons. Secondly, is to present ideas which unfold to the reader most naturally, and in this sense, a conclusion may start followed by reasons (premises) or vice versa. Thirdly, starting from premises that are reliable will help build stronger conclusions. 

The fourth rule states that one should be concise and concrete while composing an argument; thus vague, abstract and general terms should be avoided. The fifth rule is avoiding languages that are loaded, which means words that only act to sway emotions. Using consistent terms is another rule. It entails using a clear set of words for every idea to connect between premises, and between conclusion and premises. Finally, one should stick to one meaning for every term to avoid equivocation fallacy, and this entails defining every key term carefully when they are introduced and maintaining to use them as defined. 

Arguments by Examples 

This chapter provides one or more example that are specific to support a generalization. One is through using many examples because just a single example may not give support for a generalization. As such, a sample, if not all examples can be mentioned, is essential for generalization. The sample depends on the size of the set/group to be generalized about. Secondly, is the use of examples that are representative, because sometimes even many examples may misrepresent the group being generalized. Therefore, to get samples of the whole set being concluded, it is important to conduct some research 2 . 

Additionally, background information is vital to assessing a group of examples. As such, to judge a group of examples, then background rates are considered which usually include some example. Finally, counterexamples should be considered, which are used to test generalization. 

Arguments by Analogy 

Analogy requires that one argue from one case or example which is specific to another, reasoning that because both the examples are alike in various ways, then they are also similar in one more specific way; to give a conclusion to generalization 3 . However, evaluating a premise from analogy is difficult, and therefore, require a rule that a relatively same example to be used, which must not be exactly as the one in conclusion. 

Arguments from Authority 

For one to get more information about the world, the person has to rely on the authority arguments such as organizations, reference works or better-situated people. However, relying on the authority can be risky of the biases they possess. In this regard, proper authority arguments must meet the following requirements. First, the sources must be cited, which entails supporting factual assertions by references form appropriate sources. Secondly, the sources should be informed, which means qualified to make the statements they make. Thirdly, the sources should be impartial and not biased. One should ensure the sources are genuinely independent through checking their funding, their other publications, and the quoted book or report tone 4 . 

Additionally, cross-checking sources is essential because some experts disagree and for one to rely on the source, one needs to confirm if other equally impartial and qualified sources agree with the information 5 . Finally, personal attacks cannot disqualify a source. A source may be invalidated based on impartiality, not informed or if not in agreement, and not just because of personal dislikes about the author. 

Arguments about Causes 

According to Weston, the rules for any argument about causes include explaining how the cause brings about to effects; explaining why A can make sense to cause B citing informed sources to support the points. Secondly, one must propose the cause that is most likely out of the many possible causes, especially for competing explanations. When moving from correlation to cause, one has to remember that not all correlated events are related. Because some are just coincidental; some activities that are correlated may have a common cause, for instance, representing effects from another cause; either of events that are correlated may cause the other because correlation does not create causality direction; and also may sometimes be complicated. 

Deductive Arguments 

Deductive arguments is an argument type where if the premises are true then the conclusion is also valid. Deductive arguments which are properly formed are called valid arguments. There are six forms of deductive arguments which includes Modus pones, modus tollens, hypothetical syllogism, disjunctive syllogism, dilemma, and reduction to absurdity. 

Composing an Argumentative Essay 

The first step to writing an argumentative essay is through inquiry, which involves exploring issues and thinking of different positions of oneself. It entails exploring the arguments from all the sides of the problem, and questioning and defending the premises of each argument while citing evidence for any debatable claim. Additionally, rethinking and revising arguments as they arise, through trying of various conclusions before getting an idea that can be defended using strong arguments. This last step is most important because it is the stage where writers can change their minds without embarrassment, hence the most creative writing part 6 . 

After the inquiry, the essay should consist of the following to make it effective. First, explain the question to be answered, and consider the audience to be addressed. Secondly, make a definite proposal or claim to make the arguments conclusive and then develop the main argument in full. Finally, consider any objections to the interpretation or claim and the alternatives that exist 7 . 

After exploring issues and writing an outline, one is now ready to write an argumentative essay. In addition to the short argument rules mentioned above, there are extra specific rules for composing an argumentative essay. These rules include following the outline, keeping the introduction brief, giving one by one to stop confusing the reader, give clarity by explaining the connections between the ideas, support objections with some arguments to enhance the understanding of the readers, and finally, end the essay without prejudice. When writing an argumentative essay, one should be careful of fallacies. A fallacy is an argument that is misleading. The two great types of fallacies are drawing conclusions from evidence that is too little, and overlooking alternatives. 

Bibliography 

Weston, Anthony.  A rulebook for arguments (third edition) . Hackett Publishing, 2000.