North America has a rich history considering that Great Britain colonized them. The American revolution between 1763 to 1783 marked a period when America fought for its independence from the British colonialists 1 . British colonialists in America gathered numerous benefits and paid few costs for those benefits; hence, they had to leave. During the early 1760s to 1780s, the British abandoned their colonies due to the rising conflicts between America and Great Britain. The British empire had numerous colonies scattered across the globe. In North America, the British occupied Caribbean islands like Jamaica, Bermuda, and Barbados 2 . Besides, the British empire had 13 mainland American colonies, helping them grow their economy due to their wealth. After the seven-year war of empires (1756 to 1763) between the British and European powers like the French, the American revolution began 3 4 . The American Revolution was one of the most remarkable events during the late 18th century since it established its independence. Thus, it is vital to analyze the British government's actions and the people during the American Revolution and the late 18th century between 1763 to 1783.
Historians have studied American history and its relation to the British invasion of America. During the middle and late 18th century, events in America were catalyzed by Britain's hunger for land and power. American history was influenced by the cultural and commercial exchanges between the British and the Americans 5 . After the seven-year war, the British people supported the American Patriots, leading to a tense political atmosphere during the 1760s to 1780s 6 . In the summer of 1963, the Pontiac's rebellion, which was the great Indian uprising, happened. The British government responded by establishing an Indian reserve between the Great Lakes and the Ohio basin 7 . However, in October 1763, a royal proclamation ordered British colonialists to avoid settlements west of the Alleghenies 8 9 . The reason for the royal proclamation was to prevent further Indian unrest. On the other hand, the British government did not disallow the westward expansion. This led to an offensive war by the American Indians against the British troops. The British government spent huge funds to support the British forces in Canada and America. This event indicated that the British government and its people participated in illegal provocations considering that they denied the American Indians lands that were rightfully theirs.
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North America experienced series of crises between 1763 and 1783. These crises were characterized by protests and riots based on various law acts. For instance, the Stamp Act of 1964 led to more organized riots and protests since the British government attempted to raise revenue through direct taxation 10 . Sir George Grenville contemplated strategies to reduce the economic burden after the war; thus, he decided to impose the Sugar Act (1964) and the Stamp Act to carter for half the costs 11 . This approach led to an avalanche of protests against the Stamp Act. The Britons in America led riots, intimidations, and stamp burning to refuse the Stamp Act 12 . The American colonialists believed that Grenville's measures would interfere with trade and prosperity. The Sugar Act and the Stamp Act by the British Parliament indicated that the British government had breached the internal taxation principle. This led to more severe actions when the colonial merchants boycotted trade, and the colonial assemblies condemned the constitutional status to raise revenues by taxing the people. The British government had to repeal the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act after appointing Rockingham, the successor to Grenville 13 14 . America was from war, and the colonialists were not ready to embrace a law that would undermine trade and development. Even though the British government imposed the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act to raise revenue for the defense costs, their response was not well-intentioned since they understood the internal taxation principle, which faced criticism by the American colonialists. British colonialists in America positively responded as they were ready to embrace external taxation, but not internal tax that would affect trade and prosperity.
The British government's and the people's response to the events happening in America were different. Colonies like Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina had begun experiencing constitutional disputes 15 . From 1770 to 1771, these colonies had protests and riots based on an American Bishop's appointment, which the American Anglican clergy had demanded. Protestant denominational groups like the Congregationalists held protests and riots to champion the American Bishop's appointment 16 17 . Besides, conflicts rose between 1772 and 1773 since the tea duties were used to pay governors' salaries 18 . Protestors and patriots criticized this act and denied the British government from taxing businesses without consent 19 . Additionally, the patriots and protestors condemned the British government for "mobilizing troops within America without the assembly's approval" 20 . The British government aimed to punish the Boston Tea Party and its associates. The colonialist's response to these events was inconsistent. Their expectations based on their responses were to invoke a revolution. Additionally, their economic status, social life, religious diversity, and geographical proximity facilitated their response to the British government's imperial policies 21 . Protests and riot reports were common during the late 18th century as the British Atlantic communities denounced Parliamentary actions that wrongly interpreted their rights and liberties 22 . American colonialists and British Atlantic Communities were in doubt of the legitimacy and the authority of British imperial rule, which according to their belief, sought to undermine their prosperity.
In December 1773, the Boston Tea Party began to reengineer itself, considering how the British government exercised its rule. Moreover, the American colonialists during the 1760s and 1770s became united and more organized to criticize the British government and their imperial policies 23 . They aimed to defend themselves from propaganda rights and liberties constructed by the British government. American colonialists intensified their aggression and confrontational strategies to keep the British government and their subjects away. American colonialists used various strategies to respond to the British's imperial policies. These strategies were rioting and protests, boycotting goods, merchandise, and wares 24 25 . They ensured that imperial policies that sought to undermine them had no place in America. The community-wide response was mostly notable in places like New York. A revolutionary organization known as the Sons of Liberty, founded by Samuel Adams, had a significant role in organizing residents to oppose British imperial policies 26 . The Sons of Liberty had gained political influence throughout Britain's thirteen American colonies 27 . They organized, directed, and unified crowds to respond to the British government with aggression and confrontation strategies 28 .
Despite other places like New York protesting over imperial policies, Kingston's situation was different since no Stamp Act opposition reports were recorded. This was due to the heavy British military patrolling the region. Imperial policies were incorporated into the region's system as usual. Jamaica lacked a unique organization like the Sons of Liberty to organize people against the royal government's policies. Thus, Jamaica paid £2,000 stamp duty, which was the highest compared to other colonies 29 . Because of this policy, the Sons of Liberty attempted to build effective communication networks using the colonial press. They aimed to disseminate vital information to Kingston residents to respond together their fellow North American colleagues. However, information took weeks and months to reach Kingston residents, hindering the response activity 30 31 . Other areas like Glasgow adopted the strategies of American protests to respond to Imperial policies, which threatened to destroy their economic livelihoods and the British Atlantic trade. The American colonialists' response against the Imperial policies was quick, vicious, and confronting, forcing the British government to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766.
Protests and riots were the main strategies used by the American colonialists and the people to respond to British imperial policies. However, the Boston Massacre of 1770 was one biggest shame of the British colonial government during the struggle for independence to defend rights and liberties 32 . The relationship between Bostonians and the British army got intense during the violent clashes, forcing them to open fire on the crowd. People chanted "No Liberty, No King," showing their disapproval and disagreement with British imperial policies 33 . The American war of independence between 1776 to 1783 was a significant event in the history of America. The American colonial leaders trained and organized their militia in readiness for the war to pave the way for a revolutionary government 34 35 . From this scenario, the British imperial government lost its colonies by default due to the growing tension. George Washington led an army against the British forces to establish a revolutionary government. In 1778 February, Lord North responded by coming up with peace proposals to negotiate over the issue 36 . However, the peace proposal would mean that the Declaratory Act would be repealed, and the commissioners would settle to discuss the region's peace. On the other hand, Americans had embraced the idea of peace, but independence seemed to suit them well. All they wanted was to regain freedom from British imperial policies and have their full rights and liberty. Thus, the American colonialists' response against the British imperial government was not well-intentioned. Their main intention was to prevent imperial policies from interfering with their economy. They understood their rights and freedoms; hence, they did not hesitate to respond to King George III and his government with aggression and confrontation.
The British army suffered a disastrous defeat after the eventful American war. This saw Britain lose command of its colonies in America, including American waters in France and Spain. The 17th of October, 1781, marked the end of British control in America after the American and French troops defeated Lord North 37 . His words, "Oh God: It is all over," showed that the war had ended after the disastrous defeat 38 . Additionally, it marked a fresh start for America since they were no longer under the British government. This also meant that they had to abandon British imperial policies, which they believed were a menace to the promising cross-Atlantic trade and America's prosperity in general. American colonialists responded effectively by preventing King George III driven policies. The British government had to accept the loss of the 13 mainland American colonies. The American colonialists combined efforts with Britain's European rivals enabling them to defeat the British army effectively 39 . This was an interesting event since the American alliance with Britain's enemies like France and Spain had propelled them to victory against Britain. Thus, the response by the American Britons and the colonialists was neither helpful nor well-intentioned. Instead, they had the objective to achieve independence and gain freedom from King George III's oppressing regime and the British government in general.
1763 and 1783 were 20 eventful years in the history of America and Great Britain. The 20 years were characterized by rebellions, protests, and riots as significant strategies against British imperial policies. American colonialists were against various laws like Sugar Act and Stamp Act, which they believed would interfere with trade and prosperity. Additionally, American colonialists and Atlantic Britons were fed up with King George III and the British government's oppressive rule. Massacres and killings were common during the American revolution. The American Colonialists in the 13 mainland British colonies were against internal taxation. They settled for nothing less than external tax and independence. American colonialists joined forces with the French and Spanish troops to defeat Britain. The defeat at Yorktown symbolized the end of British control of America. American colonialists had used effective strategies to silence British troops; thus, ending their rule. This event facilitated America to gain its independence. Hence, the American colonialists' response and the American Britons to the British government were not well-intention since they had the goal of attaining independence.
Bibliography
Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
McElroy, Robert McNutt. "The Representative Idea and the American Revolution." Proceedings of the New York State Historical Association 17 (1919): 44-55.
O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
Pencak, William. "RR Palmer's the Age of the Democratic Revolution: The View from America After Thirty Years." Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 60, no. 1 (1993): 73-92.
Reid Jr, Joseph D. "Economic Burden: Spark to the American Revolution." Journal of Economic History (1978): 81-100.
Venturi, Franco. The End of the Old Regime in Europe, 1776-1789, Part I: The Great States of the West. Vol. 1176. Princeton University Press, 2014.
1 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
2 Ibid
3 Ibid
4 Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
5 Ibid
6 Pencak, William. "RR Palmer's the Age of the Democratic Revolution: The View from America After Thirty Years." Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 60, no. 1 (1993): 73-92.
7 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
8 Ibid
9 Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
10 Ibid
11 Ibid
12 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
13 Pencak, William. "RR Palmer's the Age of the Democratic Revolution: The View from America After Thirty Years." Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 60, no. 1 (1993): 73-92.
14 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
15 Ibid
16 Pencak, William. "RR Palmer's the Age of the Democratic Revolution: The View from America After Thirty Years." Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 60, no. 1 (1993): 73-92.
17 Ibid
18 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
19 Ibid
20 Ibid
21 McElroy, Robert McNutt. "The Representative Idea and the American Revolution." Proceedings of the New York State Historical Association 17 (1919): 44-55.
22 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
23 Ibid
24 Ibid
25 Reid Jr, Joseph D. "Economic Burden: Spark to the American Revolution." Journal of Economic History (1978): 81-100.
26 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
27 Ibid
28 Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
29 Reid Jr, Joseph D. "Economic Burden: Spark to the American Revolution." Journal of Economic History (1978): 81-100.
30 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
31 Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
32 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
33 Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
34 O'Gorman, Frank. The long eighteenth century: British political and social history 1688-1832. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
35 Bullion, John L. "The" Ancient Regime" and the Modernizing State: George III and the American Revolution." Anglican and Episcopal History 68, no. 1 (1999): 67-84.
36 Ibid
37 Venturi, Franco. The End of the Old Regime in Europe, 1776-1789, Part I: The Great States of the West. Vol. 1176. Princeton University Press, 2014.
38 McElroy, Robert McNutt. "The Representative Idea and the American Revolution." Proceedings of the New York State Historical Association 17 (1919): 44-55.
39 Ibid
