The Evolution of Democracy through the Ages

Written Assignment #1: The Evolution of Democracy and Democratic Values 

Introduction 

Prominent global authors have convincingly claimed that democracy is a universal value. For instance, democracy has intrinsic importance in human life, it plays a significant role in generating political incentives, and it is instrumental in the formation of the essential values such as human rights, duties, and understanding the feasibility of claims of human needs (Sen, 1999). Besides, democracy forms the basis for national development, and more specifically, contributes significantly to boosting the living standards of people (Sen, 1999). Therefore, democracy cannot be taken for granted at any level of governance. There is a need to build, safeguard, and protect democracy at all costs. Each citizen, the civil society, the cities, and the local governments have the responsibility and decisive role in ensuring that democracy flourishes now and in the future. 

The History of Democracy 

The term "democracy" has been defined differently by different authors and great thinkers. This implies that democracy has various meanings, and its definition depends on one's point of view. However, democracy can be defined adequately using the first principles of definitions. The word "democracy" is derived from two ancient Greek words: demos; which means people, and kratos; which means strength (Sultana, 2012). Therefore, the term “democracy” is used to refer to a situation in which political power is ultimately is in the hands of the whole adult population within a given society or a nation, and that no particular individual or group has the right to rule (Sultana, 2012). In other words, democracy is “the rule of people” (Sultana, 2012). Abraham Lincoln (1863) defined democracy at Gettysburg as “the government of the people, by the people and for the people” (Sultana, 2012). This can be interpreted to mean that people in a democratic institution are ruled as per their wishes. 

Consequently, modern democracy means that a few individuals within a society or nation are selected by the majority of the citizens to form the governing institution, and the majority of the governed group dictates the mode of governing. This further implies that the opinion of the majority subdues the opinion of the minority. For instance, a democratic institution means that the subjects have an ultimate influence on the way the particular institution is governed. Therefore, the leaders in democratic institutions go through thorough vetting are elected in free and fair elections to represent the interests of the majority. This is because the majorities in any democratic institution have the mandate to transfer political power to the governing institutions through elections held regularly, and the few chosen people from two or more political parties are given the power to represent the opinions of the governed. The assumption here is that the majority is always right. However, the term democracy is currently gaining a different worldwide connotation in that even the political systems which have little or no people’s participation are termed as democratic (Sultana, 2012). 

The idea of democracy can be traced back to the ancient world. Research shows that a long time ago, societies were controlled by wealthy and physically strong individuals (Sultana, 2012). Nevertheless, there is evidence that the ancient rulers exercised their power with moderation. This implies that those in power would work for the well-being of the ruled. Besides, the rulers would consult the authoritative members of society (Sultana, 2012). Consequently, those who were consulted by the administrators evolved into councils, estates, and finally parliaments (Sultana, 2012). With time, the idea of consensus-seeking became widespread across the world; giving birth to democracy (Sultana, 2012). Therefore, the concept of democracy was a long process and evolved from simple ruling practices to form the current complex democracy. 

The idea of democracy originated in ancient Greece, specifically Athens (Sultana, 2012). Although there were no parliaments, cabinets, or civil servants, the people of the Greek City-state assembled, discussed, and voted on critical public issues (Sultana, 2012). However, democracy had not yet gained the ultimate root. Women and slaves were excluded from voting the officials (Sultana, 2012). Besides, influential people, such as Plato, condemned democracy (Sultana, 2012). According to Plato, people lacked the moral and intellectual capacity to take part in governance. He believed that the government should be formed by the few trained elites with superior moral fiber and intellectual capacities (Sultana, 2012). Aristotle was also opposed to democracy, as he believed that democracy was a corrupt form of government (Sultana, 2012). To Aristotle, the rule of law was superior to the rule of men. However, Aristotle’s ideologies would later give birth to both autocratic and democratic societies (Sultana, 2012). 

The Athenian form of democracy failed to gain significant support in the ancient world. In 404 BC, Athens (which was led by the Delian League of democratic city-states) was defeated by an oligarchic league, led by Sparta (Sultana, 2012). Later the entire city-states were incorporated into the new Roman Empire (Sultana, 2012). The Romans were later on inspired by the Greek civilization to set the first assembly known as Comitia Curiata, which was the first step towards a democratic polity (Sultana, 2012). Under the Roman rule, various tribes were represented in the assembly by the magistrates they elected. Rome grew and gained popularity in the region. The Romans reorganized their assembly to have representatives from the Army, and it dictated how the city should operate, although the assembly was restricted to free male citizens, the wealthy, and soldiers (Sultana, 2012). The senate at the time was the most powerful body, as it selected the representatives of the assembly. It can, therefore, be deduced that Europe was the birthplace of democracy and particularly in the Greek city-states of 5 B.C during the renaissance period (Sultana, 2012). 

The renaissance period was characterized by great philosophers, such as Aristotle, whose Latin version of politics gained widespread in the mid-thirteenth century (Sultana, 2012). The enlightenment period catalyzed the European revolution. During this era, the few educated elites read ancient texts and consequently discovered the forgotten knowledge that existed during the Dark Ages (Sultana, 2012). As a result, these ancient texts stimulated enlightened people to write philosophical books and the various forms of government and subsequently resulted in the European revolution (Sultana, 2012). The English parliament passed the Bill of Rights in 1689 (Sultana, 2012). The Bill of Rights emphasized the necessity for human freedom, democracy, law, and religion. It further held that the political authority best suited the parliamentary systems; for a significant step towards equality. 

A critical step towards democracy accrued from the American revolutionary system. The American Revolution started as a movement to oppose British rule in the American colonies (Sultana, 2012). The British rule imposed forced taxation on the American colonists. This caused massive revolts against mistreatment, as the American colonists argued against taxation without representation. Consequently, the slogan “ no taxation without representation” challenged British rule over the American colonies ( Sultana, 2012 ). In April 1775, armed colonists exchanged fire with British troops at Lexington, forcing the declaration of independence two months later ( Sultana, 2012 ). 

One of the revolutionary leaders, Thomas Jefferson, issued a proclamation the arguing that a ruler can only gain ultimate power if given by the people he governs ( Sultana, 2012 ). American independence became a reality later in 1783, following the ratification of the Treaty of Paris between Britain and her colonies ( Sultana, 2012 ). Inspired by the democracy demonstrated in ancient Greece, John Locke and Montesquieu wrote the American constitution in line with democracy ( Sultana, 2012 ). The primary theme in Montesquieu and Locke’s constitutional amendments was the balancing of power between the three branches of government; the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary ( Sultana, 2012 ). This led to the ultimate practice of democracy in America. 

The Structure of Democracy 

At both micro and macro levels of governance, the terms law and political science are increasingly used interchangeably with each other in an attempt to understand the causes and effects of democratic institutions and processes. Several global institutions have listed various elements that qualify institutions or countries to be termed as being democratic. These global institutions including but not limited to the United Nations, the Organization for Economic Development, Freedom House, the International Consensus, the European Union, and the World Bank. In 2004, the UN General Assembly came into an agreement that democratic institutions or countries must display the following structural elements necessary for democratic governance: separation and balance of power; independence of judiciary; a pluralistic system of political parties and organizations; respect for the rule of law; accountability and transparency; free, independent and diversified media; and respect for human and political rights (“International Consensus”, 2019). 

The European Union on the other hand lists the following pillars of democratic rule: citizen participation; equality; political tolerance; accountability; transparency; regular, free and fair elections; economic freedom; control of the abuse power; bill of rights; a culture of accepting the results of elections; human rights; multi-party system; neutrality of state institutions; and rule of law (Klein et al., 2011). Besides, the Freedom House proposes that for any institution or a country to be termed as democratic, it must demonstrate certain principles, such as citizenship; participation; representation; multiple parties; free, fair and frequent elections; and a free judiciary (Abramowitz, 2018). This paper discusses in detail the eight fundamental structural elements of democracy, namely; citizen participation; equality; transparency; regular, free and fair elections; bill of rights; human rights; multi-party system; and the rule of law. 

Regarding citizen participation, citizens of any democratic institution are part and parcel of the institutional happenings. This implies that the citizens take the better part of key decision-making, especially in matters affecting the citizens. With this regard, communication is a two-way consultative process; both bottom-up and top-bottom, before concluding (Klein, 2011). Concerning equality, all citizens within a democratic institution are equal before the law. Besides, there is equality in terms of available opportunities, the realization of individual capacities irrespective of one's race, ethnicity, gender, and religious background (Klein, 2011). Closely related to equality is the aspect of the rule of law. Real democratic institutions hold that no one is above the law, regardless of their status (Klein, 2011). In other words, all lawbreakers are held squarely accountable for their irregularities and that there should be fairness, equality, and consistent enforcement of the law. More importantly, the rule of law protects the citizens and ensures that they enjoy their ultimate rights. 

Transparency implies that there is room for public scrutiny for all leaders who hold open offices (Abramowitz, 2018). More so, the citizens of democratic nations have the moral right to attend public meetings are take part in crucial decision-making. The citizens are also guaranteed access to information regarding the proceedings of the public offices. Democratic institutions also allow for a multi-party system. This implies that such institutions have more than one party contesting for power ( “International Consensus”, 2019 ). A multi-party system is vital for ensuring that each candidate has the right to belong to a party of their choice. Also, the parties which lose during the elections play a crucial role in keeping the ruling party under check ( “International Consensus”, 2019 ). Therefore, the aspect of a multi-party system is fundamental in any democratic state, as it ensures that there is no monotony of leadership and hence rules out the possibility of any governing institution from long-term abuse of power. 

The long-term abuse of power is also controlled by the elements of regular, free, and fair elections. For instance, the citizens are accorded with an opportunity to throw out incompetent leaders at regular intervals (Abramowitz, 2018). This also plays a key role in keeping the elected leaders under shake, hence offering the best of their services to the citizens. Free and fair elections imply that citizens are accorded with the right to select the leaders of their choice. If the aspect of free and fair elections is not depicted during the election process, this implies that corrupt leaders may assume power through rigging the polls, thus eliminating the aspect of democracy with the given institution (Abramowitz, 2018). 

The bill of rights is usually used interchangeably with human rights. However, the two are different terms with varying meanings. The bill of rights is used to refer to a case where the government powers are kept under control to protect the citizens from abuse by heavy-handed leaders (Klein, 2011). The bill of rights ensures full protection of the citizens as per the provision of the national constitution. The term "human rights," on the other hand, is used to refer to a situation in which citizens are protected from abuse through dictatorship leaders (Klein, 2011). The various human rights include the right to life, the right to own property, the freedom of expression, the freedom to associate, and the freedom to assemble (Klein, 2011). 

Types of Modern Democracies 

Each particular state or institution defines democracy in their specific ways. This leads to the various types of democracies (such as direct democracy, representative democracy, presidential democracy, parliamentary democracy, authoritarian democracy, participatory democracy, Islamic democracy, and social democracy ) witnessed in various places in the world. However, there are two primary types of modern democracy. These are parliaments and republics. 

Parliaments 

A parliament is a twentieth-century product and was adopted by many countries after 1918 ( Murse, 2019 ). Under this regime, voters choose to elect representatives on a regular basis. A parliament is characterized by five core values, including representative, open and transparent, accessible, accountable, and effective ( Murse, 2019 ). However, the application of these values varies from one country to another; and the ability to deploy these values in administration is the hallmark of a democratic parliament ( Murse, 2019 ). This leads to various kinds of parliamentary governments. For example, Finland has a parliamentary republic kind of governance, where the nation has both the president and the Prime Minister ( Murse, 2019 ). Australia and the United Kingdom operate under parliamentary democracy, where voters choose representatives in regular elections ( Murse, 2019 ). Ethiopia has a federal parliamentary republic, where the prime minister is the head of government ( Murse, 2019 ). 

Canada operates under federal parliamentary democracy, where the party with the most significant number of representatives controls the government and the office of the Prime Minister ( Murse, 2019 ). The Cook Islands were a colony of New Zealand and hence operates under a self-governing parliamentary system ( Murse, 2019 ). The United Kingdom has a monarchy serving as a ceremonial head of state, therefore leading parliamentary constitutional monarchy ( Murse, 2019 ). Malaysia serves under a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, where a monarch serves as the head of state while the prime minister serves as the head of government. Finally, Bermuda is a parliamentary democratic dependency because it is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom ( Murse, 2019 ). 

Republics 

A state that is governed by a republic system of government has the supreme power dedicated to the people and their elected representatives ( Longley, 2019 ). For instance, the elected people are given the mandate to make and enforce laws. One outstanding feature in a republic democracy is that although the majority rules, there exists an official charter that lists and protects certain inalienable rights, ensuring that the minority is protected from arbitrary political whims of the majority ( Longley, 2019 ). In the ancient world, the Athenian democracy had a form of a republic, the Roman Republic ( Longley, 2019 ). In the modern world, the United States is the best example of a nation that practices a republic kind of democracy ( Longley, 2019 ). The senators and representatives in the United States are the elected lawmakers; the president is the elected executive, while the constitution forms the official charter ( Longley, 2019 ). In Africa, the Republic of Congo, Nigeria, and Kenya have also adopted some forms of republic democracies ( Longley, 2019 ). These countries have constitutions that protect the minority from the majority. 

One major similarity between parliaments and republics is that in both cases, the leaders are chosen by the citizens in a competitive election ( Longley, 2019 ). Another similarity is that in both cases, democracy is highly regarded, and the rulers lead as per the wishes of the governed. Besides, both parliaments and republics have leaders elected regularly, and no one is allowed to dominate leadership by virtue of their status. Leaders stay at power by the mercies of the majority of voters. The parliaments differ from republics in that while the whole population holds power in parliaments, the power in republics is exercised by each citizen ( Longley, 2019 ). In parliaments, the institutions are ruled by the majority while in republics, the institutions are ruled by laws formulated by the people's representatives ( Longley, 2019 ). Besides, while the constitutions protect the rights of the minority in the republics, the rights of the minority can be overridden by the majority in the parliaments ( Longley, 2019 ). 

Democratic Values 

Democracy has a universal value. Over the years, democracy has been inculcated into the hearts and minds of people by writings and quotes of great philosophers, such as Plato, Caesar, Hobbes, Aristotle, de Montaigne, Stalin, Bismarck, Hitler, Mussolini, and Lenin. These philosophers contributed significantly in enlightening the people during their times. Although some of these philosophers would oppose democracy or even lead people with dictatorship, they provoked people to think about the importance of democracy. It is worth noting that democracy evolved from simple ideas of the ancient leadership styles, as earlier on discussed in this paper. Today, democracy is a complex leadership phenomenon, and people have gained a greater understanding of the underlying values of it, such as respect and dignity for all people ( Milakovich & Gordan, 2013 ). These values are critical to achieving true and moral democracy. 

There is a wide range of democratic values displays across all institutions that embrace democracy. These include liberty, equality, justice, human rights, duties, and understanding the feasibility of claims of human needs (Milakovich & Gordan, 2013). This paper focuses on the first three fundamental values of democracy, that is, liberty, equality, and justice. 

Liberty, Equality, and Justice 

Justice, liberty, and equality form the fundamental values of any political system. They are the primary instruments of peace and order, but at the cost of personal freedom ( Thomassen, 2007 ). This implies the interests of any particular person within a democratic institution should not violate the rights and freedom of others. In other words, one's rights and privileges should not interfere with other people's rights and freedom. Consequently, there comes a time when one's rights and freedom may be taken away. For instance, democracy accords all citizens the right for expression and access to information. However, in the case where such rights may interfere with the well-being of the nation (such as spreading information that may expose the nation's secrets to the enemies) citizens may be deprived of their rights. There is, therefore, the need to balance order and freedom in democratic institutions. 

A key dilemma that was unveiled by the European enlightenment was the moral value that accords one's right to rule the other ( Thomassen, 2007 ). Philosophers answered this dilemma by acknowledging the necessity for order and justice ( Thomassen, 2007 ). In this light, philosophers observed that lack of centralized government resulted in unending chaos, and subsequently widespread deaths and destruction ( Thomassen, 2007 ). The weak people in society ally themselves with the strong ones for survival. Similarly, citizens embrace rulers in favor of protection against their enemies. 

In the ancient world, for example, healthy people became kings and ruled. The weak people, on the other hand, worked for the kings in return for protection. This theoretical model leads to the conclusion that order is a necessary loss of freedom if people are to survive ( Thomassen, 2007 ). This leads to the concept of balancing liberty and order, in that a little order may be sacrificed for the sake of liberty. Similarly, liberty must balance with equality, in that complete liberty leads to inequality ( Thomassen, 2007 ). The people must also instill justice in power. This implies that for justice to exist, one party must agree to be ruled by the other party. At the same time, there cannot be absolute justice if the ruling party does not embrace democracy. In summary, the balance between liberty and equality leads to democracy, and subsequently, justice. 

Written Assignment #2: Public Administration’s Journey 

Throughout its history, public administration has demonstrated different functions in society; some more visible than others, and some more successful than others. Dr. Nicholas Henry has mapped nearly 100 years of public administration and a profession and as a service in his book “ Public Administration and Public Affairs” (2018). Henry uses the concept of the paradigm to illustrate how the public administration's locos and focus have changed over the past century. According to Henry, efficient, effective, and responsible governance in the era of political corruption and crises in public finance is best demonstrated by the Public Administration and Public Affairs (Henry, 2018). 

A paradigm is a clear or typical model showing how something operates or originates (Donmoyer, 2006). It is a useful construct because it makes sense of the history of the conceptual change in the physical sciences (Donmoyer, 2006). The construct is critical for use in both various academic fields and non-academic fields. For instance, Henry uses several paradigms to successfully illustrate how public administration's locos and focus have changed over the past century. 

Paradigm 1: The Politics/Administration Dichotomy, 1900-1926 

Section A: Public Administration - The Profession 

The profession was developing rapidly. The committee championed the professional development of Instruction in Government of the American Political Science Association. Besides, scholars gave public administration the first attention. Public administration was viewed as the center for government bureaucracies. The academic disciplines were concerned with training for citizenship, professional preparations such as law, and experts in preparation for the occupation of the government positions. The key writers were Frank J. Goodnow and Leonard D. White. These writers made significant contributions in introducing the public to the structure of public administration. The locus was the concentration of study during this era. The main focus was where public administration ought to be. 

Section B: The American Society 

This was the era of the middle industrial revolution. People moved from rural areas to the cities. There was increased poverty, poor housing, and sanitation in urban areas; hence, the Progressive Movement tried to mitigate these issues. As a result, various new laws and programs were created and needed professional PA to manage them. 

Section C: Democratic Values 

As earlier stated in Assignment #1, the three key democratic values are liberty, equality, and justice. They form the fundamental instruments of peace and order in any democratic institution. 

Liberty. 

The value of liberty existed during this era, but it appeared relatively invisible. However, it was demonstrated in the way people were free to own property. The intellectuals and the Wealthy were respected, hence formed part of the administration. 

Equality 

There was partial equality. There was fair treatment of all people within a given society. However, women and slaves were not allowed to take part in governance. 

Justice 

Justice existed visibly. Justice institutions were created during this era. There was professional training of lawyers to initiate justice. 

Paradigm II: The Principles of Administration, 1927-1937 

Section A: Public Administration - The Profession 

The profession was developing significantly. This was championed by the increased demand for managerial knowledge, courted by industry and government. The major writers were F.W. Willoughby, Luther H. Gullick, and Lyndall Urwick. There was an emphasis on academic training, where students focused mainly on Social Science. The locus was around the studies, while the focus was the principles of favor. 

Section B: The American Society 

The industrial revolution was taking the better part of society. People moved from rural areas to the cities. There was increased poverty, poor housing, and sanitation in urban areas; hence, the Progressive Movement tried to mitigate these issues. As a result, various new laws and programs were created and needed professional PA to manage them. 

Section C: Democratic Values 

As earlier stated in Assignment #1, the three key democratic values are liberty, equality, and justice. They form the fundamental instruments of peace and order in any democratic institution. 

Liberty. 

Liberty was becoming visible. Key writers expressed their concerns against slavery. The intellectuals and the Wealthy were respected, hence formed part of the administration. 

Equality 

The principle of equality was becoming part of society. There was fair treatment of all people within a given community. Women were gaining recognition in society. 

Justice 

Justice existed visibly. Justice institutions were created during this era. There was professional training of lawyers to initiate justice, and many scholars wrote against slavery. 

Paradigm III: Public Administration as Political Science, 1950-1970 

Section A: Public Administration - The Profession 

Professionalism gained root in many parts of the nation. The administrative institutions increased demand for expertise leaders. Many industries also valued skilled labor over unskilled labor. No new significant writers were depicted during this period. Public administration started diminishing. The locus was the establishment of linkages between political science and administration, while the focus was on the public administration. 

Section B: The American Society 

The industrial revolution was no longer science fiction. Urban centers were highly populated. There was a high demand for skilled labor prompting the expansion of various new laws and programs to create professional PA to offer specialized education. 

Section C: Democratic Values 

The three key democratic values are liberty, equality, and justice. They form the fundamental instruments of peace and order in any democratic institution. 

Liberty. 

Liberty was visible. There was no longer a slave trade. Women started taking part in leadership. 

Equality 

There was significant equality. There was fair treatment of all people within the society regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity. 

Justice 

Justice existed visibly. There were prominent Justice Institutions across the nation, which were lead by specialized lawyers. 

Paradigm IV: Public Administration as Public Administration, 1956-1970 

Section A: Public Administration - The Profession 

There was a specialty in professionalism. Most of the administrative offices were held by educated personnel. Many industries also valued skilled labor over unskilled labor. The chief writer was Keith M. The locus was administrative science, while the focus was on the public administration. 

Section B: The American Society 

The industrial revolution was no longer science fiction. Urban centers were highly populated. There was a high demand for skilled labor prompting the expansion of various new laws and programs to create professional PA to offer specialized education. 

Section C: Democratic Values 

The three critical democratic values are liberty, equality, and justice. They form the fundamental instruments of peace and order in any democratic institution. 

Liberty. 

Liberty was visible. There was no longer a slave trade. Women started taking part in leadership. 

Equality 

There was significant equality. There was fair treatment of all people within the society regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity. 

Justice 

Justice existed visibly. There were prominent Justice Institutions across the nation, which were led by specialized lawyers. 

Paradigm V: Public Administration as Public Administration, 1970-? 

Section A: Public Administration - The Profession 

There is a specialty in professionalism. Most administrative offices are held by highly trained personnel. Many industries value skilled labor over unskilled labor. The leading writers are scholars from various distinct institutions. The locus is public administration, while the focus is on curricular autonomy. 

Section B: The American Society 

There is a computerization of modern industries. Urban centers are highly populated. There is a high rate of unemployment. 

Section C: Democratic Values 

The three critical democratic values are liberty, equality, and justice. They form the fundamental instruments of peace and order in any democratic institution. 

Liberty. 

Liberty is visible. Most people know their rights. Women are taking part in leadership. 

Equality 

There is significant equality. There is fairness for all people within society regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity. 

Justice 

Justice has gained root in all parts of the nation. There are plenty of prominent Justice Institutions across the country, which are led by specialized lawyers. 

Written Assignment # 3 

Applying Democratic Values to United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 

USAID is a U.S- based government agency created on November 3, 1961, with a spirit of progress and innovation. Its primary focus was to bring together several existing foreign assistance organizations and programs (Clinton, 2012). It was charged with the task of carrying out overseas development following the enactment of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 by Congress (Clinton, 2012). USAID administers aid to foreign countries for the promotion of social and economic development. 

USAID has various stakeholders who collectively drive the development, implementation, and success of the agency’s efficiency policy. The government plays a vital role in addressing energy efficiency by formulating policies that state specific standards for buildings and technologies (Clinton, 2012). Besides, the government offers financial support for the running of the agency. Financial institutions help in financing the USAID’s various operations and also promoting energy efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Clinton, 2012). The consumers buy into the interests of the organization, thus improving the achievement of the agency’s operational goals and targets (Clinton, 2012). 

The contractors form part of skilled labor and provide the agency with technical professionals critical for the installation of energy-efficient products and constructions (Clinton, 2012). The manufacturers and retailers, on the other hand, avail energy-efficient products for the agency (Clinton, 2012). Finally, the citizens offer taxes that form the basis for the government source of funds to facilitate the organizational operations. 

Referring to Written Assignment #1, the three values of democracy include liberty, equality, and justice. There is enough evidence that USAID is committed to addressing all these values. For instance, USAID stresses on religious rights, as provided by the International law, hence promoting religious liberty for the religious minorities across the world. About equality, USAID acts as a pivotal contributor to women empowerment, thus promoting gender equality. Through USAID, women, and youth have been able to take key positions in leadership, hence promoting equality across the globe. Finally, USAID strengthens judicial systems that are committed to independence, integrity, transparency, impartiality, and accountability, thus promoting justice worldwide. Besides, USAID strengthens administrative institutions that uphold high standards of justice, leading the spread of justice in many parts of the world. 

References 

Abramowitz, J. (2018). Freedom in the World 2018: Democracy in Crisis. 1-24. (Online). Retrieved October 9, 2019; from https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2018_Final_SinglePage.pdf 

Clinton, H. (2012). Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy: USAID Policy. 1-21. (Online). Retrieved October 10, 2019; from https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/GenderEqualityPolicy_0.pdf 

Donmoyer, R. (2006). Take My Paradigm … Please! The Legacy of Kuhn’s Construct in Educational Research: International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 19(1): 11-34. Retrieved October 10, 2019; from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09518390500450177?journalCode=tqse20 

Henry, N. (2018). Public Administration and Public Affairs (13 th edition). Accessed October 10, 2019; from https://www.vitalsource.com/ 

International Consensus: Essential Elements of Democracy: Democracy Reporting International. (2019). 1-16. (Online). Retrieved October 9, 2019; from http://www.concernedhistorians.org/content_files/file/TO/333.pdf 

Klein, A., Kiranda, Y., Bafaki, R., Okiror, G., & Kamp, M. (2011). Concepts and Principles of Democratic Governance and Accountability: Project Supported By the European Union. 1-42. (Online). Retrieved October 9, 2019; from https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=56a283ae-50ff-0c9b-7179-954d05e0aa19&groupId=252038 

Longley, R. (2019). Republic vs. Democracy: What Is the Difference? (Online). Retrieved October 10, 2019; from https://www.thoughtco.com/republic-vs-democracy-4169936 

Milakovich, M.E., & Gordan, G.J. (2013). Public Administration in America (11th Ed). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Available on ISBN-13: 978-1-111-82801-1 ISBN-10: 1111828016 

Murse, T. (2019). Major Parliamentary Governments and How They Work. (Online). Retrieved October 10, 2019; from https://www.thoughtco.com/how-parliamentary-government-works-4160918 

Sen, A. (1999). Democracy as a Universal Value: Journal of Democracy. 10(3): 3-17. Retrieved October 9, 2019; from https://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Democracy_as_a_Universal_Value.pdf 

Sultana, T. (2012). The Evolution of Democracy through the Ages: Focus on the European Experience: Journal of European Studies. 28: 27-50. Retrieved October 9, 2019; from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328576959_The_Evolution_of_Democracy_through_the_Ages_Focus_on_the_European_Experience 

Thomassen, J. (2007). Democratic Value: The Oxford Handbook of Political Behavior. (Online). Retrieved October 10, 2019; from https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199270125.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199270125-e-022