Language is always on a continual change. However, these changes do not occur in a short span. The changes have direct implications for vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar. Old words are replaced by new words and still others change their individual definitions. Freeborn ( 2006) notes that when a word changes in spelling in different time periods it is a clear manifestation of the fact that pronunciation change has occurred or is about to. Language change is a fundamental study that provides an insightful look into past civilizations. It further avails information about previous generations and how effective they were at expressing themselves given their prevailing context. To appreciate this change in the English language, it is prudent to look at the transition from the old English (OE) to the current modern English (ME).
The OE period can be said to start around 450 AD. This was right after the occupation of Southern Europe by the West Germanic Settlers (Saxons, Angles and Jutes). These groups brought new foreign dialects which closely resembled the modern day Frisian, Dutch and German. To appreciate the elements of the Germanic influence in English one ought to look at some of the vocabularies that characterize the modern-day English- compare come ( cuman OE), heart ( heorte OE) and old ( eald OE) with German with kommen, herz and alt (Freeborn, 2006). Additionally, some of the grammatical features can also be traced back to the said time such as drink- drank- drunk ( drincan-darnc-druncen (ge) (Freeborn, 2006). This is contrasted by German’s trinken-trank- getruken . Likewise, a number of the OE pronunciations are highly preserved in the contemporary spellings such as knight (German knecht , OE cniht ), in this context k would have been pronounced by the OE speakers as k and gh sounded as ch in loch as spoken by the Scots (Freeborn, 2006).
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The OE is “more than the language of three tribes brought to Britain: rather is an amalgamation of Germanic dialects mostly though not all from the western Germanic group brought to Britain and developing in Britain” (Davis, 2006, 73-74). There were two Anglican dialects (Mercian and Northumbrian), one Jutish (Kentish) and one Saxon dialect (West Saxon). Additionally, Britain was a host to Vikings whose language named Old Norse was incorporated into the OE. The Old Norse language faced constant changes due to the regular patterns of conquest and trade then. The English and Norsemen could effectively engage as their languages had emerged from the same language branch of the Proto-Germanic language. The Old Norse died out after the integration of the Old English into the King’s court and the creation of the Danelaw boundary. This was after prolonged civil strife which later bore distinctive lands and people. This separation is the primary reason behind the distinction between Saxons and Danes. Additionally, the separation is behind the modern day European dialects observed today.
The Middle English began after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror. This conquest had more significant implications on the English culture and society in general. The changes were drastic (Greenfield & Clark, 1959). The period was highly characterised by the French influence which was enhanced by the French nobility that brought its customs and culture where the Norman French ultimately became the kingdom’s official language. It is prudent to note that at the same time Latin was still prominently used within the religious settings. Despite the existence of the major languages, the English language did not disappear but rather achieved significant progress and amendments.
In the ME period, the English vocabulary was expanded by over 10,000 French language words. These French-based vocabularies were mostly associated with administration, social life and fashion: state, crown, madam, sir, government, judge, crime, court, soldier, tower, coat, dress, colour, dinner and many more. Barber, Beal, and Shaw (2009) acknowledge that the French language was considered superior and thus was spoken by the noblemen while English was a common dialect spoken by the masses. The West Saxon dialect, which had gained prominence as a distinct language in the OE period, began to “lose its status as a standard literary language” (Barber et al., 2009). A standard norm for the English dialect would suffice after three centuries.
In the early ME, no strict standard laws were guiding or governing the language which led to the impinging “on the spelling and pronunciation leading to discrepancies both in phonology and grammar” (Barber et al., 2009). There was a notable adaptation of the English language by the 14th century. English became a literary language. The literature was now written in the English language and the then common French language replaced by English in the grammar schools. The language, once again, occupied its rightful place as the administrative language (Barber et al., 2009). Many writers, however, preferred Latin or French. Latin was highly preferred as it rarely witnessed any unprecedented changes in contrast to other modern languages that were dynamic.
In the 15th century, the English language enjoyed unprecedented growth gaining much ground over both French and Latin. This alluded to major historical events which facilitated the re-emergence of this language. Additionally, some steps were taken to restore English in its rightful place as the principal language in England above Latin and French. Henry II, for instance, used both French and English in his court. The English language was also employed at Oxford. After 1300 there were significant reputable texts on different topics written in English for public consumption (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009).
The written language sufficed from a blend of local dialects that were popularly used in the 14th century and since became the basis for standard both in written and oral language. The standardisation was pre-empted by the East Midland dialect or the common London language. The West Saxon conventional system of punctuation and spelling was no longer utilised at the time. Therefore, the new Standard English language did not emerge from the West Saxon language but rather the common London dialect or East Midland dialect. It is prudent to note the Middle English placed the foundation for the English language that continues to be spoken to this date. Pundits hail the Middle English for its dialectical diversity. According to Baugh and Cable (2000), the main dialects in use were West Midland (Mercian in OE), Kentish, East Midland (Mercian in OE), Kentish and Southern (West Saxon in OE). Due to the lack of “adequate standardization in spelling, varieties in texts provided unparalleled occasions for understanding the pronunciation of words at the time” (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009). For a modern person, reading the Middle English texts is not difficult despite the lack of spelling standards. This is because “even though there was a lack of spelling standards, it can be said that written characters and digraphs had more or less only one realisation”. The pronunciation of vowels was literal.
Upward (2012) asserts that modern English was heralded by the introduction of printing in the 15th century. At this stage, there was the formulation of standardised spelling which has not changed to date. The Great Vowel Shift (GVS) provided the necessary shift which “entailed all the long vowels and changed the quality of vowels”. A good example is the vowel mete was merely a more extended version of the vowel in hell, and caaas ‘case’ (long ) and blak black (short) (Barber, Beal, & Shaw, 2009). Therefore, during this era people started to pronounce the long vowels distinctively from the equivalent short vowels: long e ended up being pronounced as I, thus creating a gap in the sound system. As a result, a drastic change was observed in the long vowels where they were shortened. The GVS was more or less fully completed by the year 1700. The different pronunciation and writing continue to reflect the disparities in the English language between the modern English language and other European languages.
As aforementioned, modern English became standardised and effectively adopted after the introduction of printing. This goes without saying that William Caxton, an English printer, played a pivotal role in the standardisation of the English language. Through print, English texts became readily available for public consumption. It also opens the much-needed discourse on further standardisation with the spelling regularity being debated and ultimately bringing about spelling conformity. It is these standardisation efforts that saw the effective translation of classical works that were mostly written in the Middle English (Upward, 2012). With Renaissance, creative literature and scientific studies saw some Greek and Latin words being incorporated into the English language. Words such as metamorphosis, education, conscious, and critic trace their roots to Greek and Latin languages.
It is prudent to note that limited linguistic freedoms characterised the centuries that followed. Linguists made an effort to ensure that the language was well codified in a standardised manner through dictionaries, pronunciation and grammar guides. Word lists and dictionaries currently act as the general standardizers for grammar, spelling and words. There has been room for inventiveness when it comes to the use of vocabulary. Communities that are in the English speaking countries have adopted different dialects often through mixing with the standard languages. Currently, there exist other varieties of English such as Irish, American, Scottish, Canadian, and Cockney.
References
Barber, C. L., Beal, J. C., & Shaw, P. A. (2009). The English language: A historical introduction . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baugh, A. C., & Cable, T. (2000). A history of the English language . London, UK: Routledge.
Freeborn, D. (2006). From Old English to Middle English. From Old English to Standard English , 83-107. doi:10.1007/978-0-230-20768-4_5
Greenfield, S. B., & Clark, J. W. (1959). Early English: A Study of Old and Middle English. Modern Language Notes , 74 (1), 59. doi:10.2307/3040110
Upward, C. (2012). Some Sound and Spelling Developments in Middle and Modern English. The History of English Spelling , 173-193. doi:10.1002/9781444342994.ch6
