Many countries around the world have been affected directly or indirectly by terrorism. Although terrorism is not an entirely new concept, most Americans had a horrifying experience with it on September 11, 2001. The attacks have remained in America’s consciousness, given the number of people that lost their lives on the fateful day. Moreover, the 9/11 attack had lasting impacts in the social and political lives of Americans ( Archetti, 2015 ). For instance, the country established a vast national security network that is influencing every aspect of American life. The United States has spent a lot of money in the war against terrorism, following the major terrorist attack that wreaked havoc in the country. The questions of how best to deal with the ever-present threat of terrorism have continuously been debated. Understanding how and why terrorist individuals and groups practice their craft allows not only for anticipation of threats, but also for the development of more effective mitigation strategies.
Characteristics of Terrorism
Terrorism refers to the systematic use of violence as a means of creating a general climate of fear in order to achieve economic, political, religious or ideological goal.s Terrorist attacks can be committed by an individual or a group. Terrorism has several characteristics that have led to its proliferation around the world. Strict adherence to ideology is one of the most striking characteristics of terrorism.
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Strict Adherence to Ideology
An ideology refers to a collection of beliefs or opinions of an individual, group, or culture. The narratives underlying such ideologies are often powerful. Ideology greatly influences the way individuals make sense of the world around them. It arms people with moral frameworks, values, as well as the ability to comprehend and add meanings in relations. For a long time, ideology has played a role in imbuing communities with a certain sense of political purpose. For instance, the left-wing ideology played a central role in influencing the political ideologies of individuals and groups.
Religious beliefs have also formed a basis for certain ideologies. Certain interpretations of religious texts have resulted in ideologies that glorify acts of violence as logical actions. Such ideologies often manifest themselves through either propagation or focal support, compelling individuals to commit acts of violence on their own or join organizations that encourage them to do so.
The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) is a terror group whose ideology is based on Salafi Jihadism. ISIL believes that it represents the restoration of the early Islam caliphate (Kfir, 2015). The terror group requires all Muslims to pay allegiance to it. Moreover, individuals associated with ISIL believe that Jihad in God’s path is a critical individual obligation whose aim is to liberate all Muslim lands. Therefore, anyone or any power that threatens such a divine initiative is considered an enemy. The ISIL militants, as well as the individual sympathizers around the globe may stage terror attacks against targets identified or perceived to undermine the objective of the terror group.
Individuals also have certain ideologies that shape their beliefs and opinions about life and what happens around them. When things do not go according to their expectations, they may get extremely disappointed. Additionally, they may identify those responsible for the problems they face. The anger accompanying such disappointments may contribute to terrorism. For instance, the aggrieved parties may commit terrorist acts in order to achieve and economic or political goal in their societies.
Classification of Terrorism
The various kinds of terrorism are based on the identity of the actors and targets of the terror activities. There are four main types of terrorism: vigilante terrorism, insurgent terrorism, transnational terrorism, and state terrorism.
Vigilante Terrorism
Vigilante terrorism refers to terrorism that is committed by private citizens against fellow private citizens. The motivation could be religious, ethnic, racial, or other kinds of hatred. Resistance to social change could be another cause of vigilante terrorism. For instance, the violence carried out by the Ku Klux Klan was vigilante terrorism. Additionally, the violence against the Native Americans by the white Europeans between the 1600s and the 1800s was a case of vigilante terrorism too.
Insurgent Terrorism
Insurgent terrorism is a kind of terrorism committed by private citizens against their government. This type of terrorism has no political connotation as it can be committed by any political wing ( Coggins, 2015). The history of the United States is filled with insurgent terrorism, particularly the violence against the British forces before and during the American Revolution. This kind of terrorism also describes the violence against the businesses that are deemed to be representing the government.
Transnational Terrorism
Transnational terrorism refers to the type of terrorism committed by the citizens of a particular nation against targets in another nation. The 9/11 terror attack on the United States is an example of a transnational terrorism. The US has not been the only target of transnational terrorism. For instance, transnational terrorism has been common in several nations such as Britain, Spain, France, and Belgium. Transnational terrorism has become the most common type of terrorism around the globe.
State Terrorism
State terrorism is a type of terrorism that is executed by a government that is aimed at frightening its own citizens. The main objective of this type of terrorism is to stifle any form of dissent from its citizenry. Essentially, state terrorism may involve assassinations, mass murder, as well as torture. State terrorism is responsible for many deaths compared to all other kinds of terrorism combined. Genocide is the most common form of state terrorism. For instance, the Nazi holocaust resulted in the death of over six million Jews, along with six million other people. One of the major examples of state terrorism in the United States is the response of the Southern white law enforcement officers to the protesters during the civil rights protests of the 1960s.
Major Personalities, Groups and Events
George Bush and Osama Bin Laden are some of the individuals who come into mind at the mention of terrorism. Al-Qaeda and ISIS are some of the notable terror groups in the world today. The September 11, 2001 and the November 13, 2015 terrorist attacks in the United States and France respectively are some of the major terrorist attacks in recent history.
The United States government launched the international military campaign against terrorism under the George Bush’s administration. He first used the term ‘war on terrorism’ on September 16, 2001. Bush stated that America’s enemy is a ‘radical network of terrorists, as well as every government that supports them’ (McCartney, 2004).
Osama bin Laden is alleged to have played a role in the terror attacks against the United States. He was the founder of the terror Islamist organization al-Qaeda. He was the mastermind of many terrorist attacks against the United States of America and other Western states. Under the leadership of bin Laden, al-Qaeda trained militants and funded major terrorist attacks. Therefore, he contributed significantly to terrorism as the leader of the terror group al-Qaeda.
The 9/11 attack on the United States will remain in the memory of America as the most horrifying terrorist action. The attack, associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda, led to the loss of 3000 lives. The event triggered major United States initiatives against the threat of terrorism. The US has not been the only victim of terror attacks, as countries like France have also suffered a similar fate. The Paris attacks of 2015 saw 137 people killed. The event led to major coordinated efforts by Western governments to combat terrorism.
Factors Contributing to Terrorism
There are several major factors contributing to terrorism. The factors include poverty, religion, and racism.
Poverty
Poverty has been linked with terrorism. For instance, President George Bush linked poverty with terrorism and his assessment was supported by a wide assortment of politicians and public figures (McCartney, 2004). People living in conditions of economic deprivation are more likely to develop strong grievances that they have no hope of resolving ( Krueger & Male čková, 2003). As a result, they may resort to terrorism as a way of calling attention to their predicament.
Religion
Some religious ideologies can be a motivating factor for terrorism. Religious extremists may commit acts of terror in order to achieve some religious objectives. For instance, extreme religious interpretations of the Quran are considered the reason for the emergence of the violent jihad. In some countries, suicide bombers, mostly drawn from Islam, have attacked churches. This indicates that some religious extremists can attack other religions perceived to be religious adversaries.
Racism
Terrorism can be caused by racial hatred. Some racial groups may plan and execute terror attacks against other races. For instance, the Ku Klux Klan in the United States committed acts of terror against blacks. The racist group members believed that whites are superior to blacks. As such, they were determined to kill blacks. This indicates that racism may be a major contributing factor to terrorism.
Myths about Terrorism
There are several myths that exist regarding terrorism, particularly in the US. Firstly, some people hold that terrorism is a random act committed by irrational people. However, this is not actually true. Terrorists are often motivated by geopolitical grievances and not blind hatred. The tactical goal of any terrorist is to sow fear and confusion, with civilians being the primary targets. Essentially, terrorists target countries that are more susceptible to public pressure, such as the US. Additionally, the attacks are normally timed to occur when they will have the most impact. This implies that terrorists are rational, and the attacks are not random as believed. The second myth about terrorism is that terror attacks are mainly committed by Muslims. Such an assertion is not actually true, as no religion has a monopoly on terror. The fact that Islamic terrorists were responsible for 9/11 attacks does not mean that Muslims are to be blamed for all terror attacks. For instance, the 1995 Oklahoma bombing was carried out by the homegrown villain, Timothy MacVeigh (Kaplan et al., 2014). Therefore, terrorists do not necessarily belong to a particular religion.
Assumptions and Hypotheses Regarding Terrorism
Some of the major assumptions relating to terrorism are that terrorism is successful, increasingly lethal, and anti-western. There is a common assumption that terrorism is successful (Fortna, 2015). Major terrorist attacks tend to achieve the goals of the perpetrators. For instance, the 9/11 attacks generated worldwide fear. Additionally, if the terrorists wanted to kill people, they achieved their objective as 3,000 lives were lost. The assumption that terrorism is increasingly lethal is common in recent times. Terrorists are currently using lethal weapons to carry out attacks, leading to mass killings and destruction of property. Additionally, the assumption that terrorism is anti-western has become popular. This is because most of the countries targeted are from the West, such as United States, Britain, and France, among others.
There are several hypotheses that are used to explain terrorist behaviors. The major hypotheses include the frustration-aggression hypothesis and the negative identity hypothesis. The frustration-aggression hypothesis asserts that much terrorist behavior is a response to the frustration of several economic, political, and personal objectives or needs (Taşpınar, 2009). Such hypothesis can be used to explain the terrorist attacks in Paris. The terror group that committed the attacks may have been frustrated by any of the policies implemented by the country. The negative identity hypothesis argues that the political terrorist consciously assumes a negative identity (Arena & Arrigo, 2005). According to this particular-hypothesis, terrorist groups carry out terror attacks as a result of rage and helplessness occasioned by a lack of alternatives. The hypothesis can be used to explain the 9/11 attack on the United States. The attack could have been al-Qaeda’s response to United States’ support oppression against Muslims by Israel in Lebanon and Russia in Chechnya. The rage and helplessness following such oppression may have motivated the attack.
Conclusion
Terrorism is also classified into four types: vigilante, insurgent, transnational and state terrorism. Poverty, religion, and racism are some of the major contributing factors to terrorism. There are various assumptions regarding terrorism. The most outstanding are that terrorism is successful, increasingly lethal, and is predominantly anti-western. Most importantly, there are various hypotheses that seek to explain the behavior of terrorists. The major hypotheses regarding terrorism include frustration-aggression hypothesis and negative identity hypothesis. The frustration-aggression hypothesis is generally based on the assumption that aggression is always a consequence of frustration. On the other hand, negative identity hypothesis has some significant strength. For instance, the hypothesis links feelings of rage and helplessness to terrorism.
References
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