A mass disaster refers to a sudden, violent and unexpected event that is associated with economic/environmental losses, a large number of causalities and significant interruption in the normal functioning of the affected area. Occasionally, a mass disaster is natural, but in some cases, it can be human induced. The Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters further defines a mass disaster as a fatal occurrence which exceeds the ability of the affected community to cope, necessitating further intervention from at the national or international level. After the occurrence of a mass disaster, one of the most challenging tasks is the identification of victims from the mass fatalities not only for humanitarian reasons but also for also for criminal investigations. To ensure all these processes go on smoothly, forensic anthropologists are often required. This paper, therefore, provides an overview of the role of the forensic anthropologist in a mass disaster, especially in victim identification.
Initial Assessment
At the disaster site, the pressure is always to evacuate individuals trapped and also locate and collect the remains that will possibly help in timely identification ( Rajshekar & Tennant, 2014). All this is done in an environment that is characterized by chaos and limited resources. Forensic anthropologists with their extensive field experience in search, mapping, and recovery play an integral role in the initial assessment plan. They do that by assessing the condition of the sites, regarding the damage that has already been done. The detailed site assessment is critical as it impacts the planning logistics, recording and recovery of human remains significantly. Besides, they ensure that the recovery timetable is viable. This is to provide that there is no decomposition or unnecessary fragmentation of critical forensic materials such as bones ( Anderson & Spradley,2016). Based on their expertise, they also ensure that the preliminary budget is enough. This information is essential for the manager and policymakers in the disaster management team when it comes to preparing for other eventualities in future.
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Mapping and Excavation
While undergoing training, forensic anthropologists also learn about cartography, field experience, and archaeology. Research has shown that such knowledge plays a critical role when it comes to mapping the disaster scene and excavations. Occasionally, the mapping of the disaster scene is not the work of forensic anthropologist but that of a forensic archaeologist. However, due to some developments in the field of mapping, both of them work closely in bringing their skills into the disaster scenario. According to Blau and Briggs (2011), various mapping strategies used to map the disaster scene in identifying the bodies or body parts. The gridding system of mapping is the most recommended especially in low -tech environment, but other advanced methodologies such as drones, Geographical Information System (GIS), can be used depending on the disaster site.
Forensic anthropologists’ expertise in the use of various search techniques and procedures depending on the type of incident play an essential role in the direct excavation process. In the surface recovery of remains, forensic anthropologists use techniques such as grids or strips. In collapsed structures, trained and cadaver dogs are vital in searching and locating human remains. In the 2009 Continental Connection Flight 3407 crash in New York which killed more than 50 people, forensic anthropologists with the help of field archaeologist were able to use tools such as grids and zone methods to excavate the human remains. Based on their training, they were ready to recognized burned, and fragmented human remains, recording them in a detailed way regarding their proximity to the site of the disaster, conjoining elements and their association with personal effects ( Mundorff,2012). Along with ensuring proper identification, forensic anthropologist also provides that the excavation tools do not destroy human but maximize the number of human materials that will be recovered. In the Australian bushfires that occurred in 2009, forensic anthropologists ensured that the right tools were used in the excavation process. The implementation of this archaeological principles and protocols assured that a more significant percentage of human remains were recovered and also correct documentation of contextual information ( Blau& Briggs, 2011). This was in contrast with the excavations in most fires, where fight fighters with zero training in anthropologist compromise human remain, leading to slower identification process and further commingling.
Recognizing human from non-human remains
One of the significant fields that forensic anthropologists go through is zooarchaeology, which involves the study of human and non-humans remains in the disaster sites. Based on their training and expertise, they can accurately differentiate between non-human remains from the human remain during the commingling process ( Prajapati et al., 2018) . In most mass disasters, it is possible not to encounter non-human remains. For instance, during the World Trade Center (WTC) fire tragedy, most of the human materials became mingled with thousands of animal bones. A forensic anthropologist working on site were able to recognized and discard the non-human materials (animal bones) before being taken to the mortuary for further analysis ( Mundorff,2012) . Proper identification and an assortment of human materials helped in reducing the numbers of case numbers as well as the generation of unnecessary data.
Forensic anthropologists also have diverse knowledge when it comes to skeletal anatomy and experience in other types of remains. Using their knowledge and experience, they can differentiate between burnt, decomposed or fragmented remains or otherwise compromised human material (to Blau &Briggs, 2011). For instance, certain materials, especially during a fire disaster, can be easily mistaken for human remains. Thus, forensic anthropologists ensure that essentials materials are collected especially human materials to reduce the complexities of the whole process and cost of the entire mass disaster operation.
Morgue Processing
After collecting, assembling and documenting all information needed for forensic analysis, the materials are transported to the morgue for further investigation, identification, and death certification. Before any forensic analysis, forensic anthropologists assist the disaster management team in the triage station in filling some essential information. These include the characteristics of individuals recovered in the site regarding the degree of fragmentation, burns and recognizable victim ( Rajshekar & Tennant, 2014). After the triage process, the most important role of forensic anthropologists is to sort the non-human items from the human materials once again, sorting the commingled remains and pairing the disparate parts. Although it is essential to sort human from non-human materials before leaving the site, sometimes it is entirely impossible. Thus, forensic anthropologists utilize the triage station to streamline the whole process by further eliminating the nonhuman materials ( Prajapati et al., 2018) . As previously mentioned, in the WTC fire incident there was existent of many non-human materials, the triage process helped forensic anthropologists to eliminate further more than 2, 500 non-human materials that would have gone through the forensic analysis, further complicating the process.
Forensic anthropologists also play an essential role when it comes to sorting commingling remains. Commingling occurs when separate remains that they do not belong to the same person are erroneously placed together in the recovery bag during the collecting of human materials at the disaster scene ( Rajshekar & Tennant, 2014) . In most cases, it is difficult to discern this mistakes as s a bone that may appear to belong to a particular person, but on a closer look, some fragments in the bone may reveal it belong to other individuals. This mostly in disasters such as bombings and plane crashes where the impact is enormous. Proper commingling helps in saving times and preventing mistakes that may occur in the long run such as mistaken identity.
Forensic anthropologists also play the role of re-associating disparate remains. Forensic anthropologists are accustomed to joining separate parts that have already been separated. This is done through either articulation or anatomic matching. Disparate parts that have unique features are identified, pre-examined and later associated with other identifiable parts. This process is very critical as it ensures that only fewer cases undergo through tedious processes such as DNA examination ( Anderson & Spradley, 2016). In the WTC identification process, much of the identification was made through re-association. Though other processes, such as fingerprints simplified the whole process.
Lastly, forensic anthropologists utilize the triage system to identify bodies that are fragmented, burned or are compromised. They use strategies such as finger matching or fingerprints to identify the owners as they are the most identifiable characteristics. When forensic anthropologists fail to identify the victims on these premises, forensic anthropologists use osteological skills such as skeletal anomalies to yield quick identifications. The use of this simple processes reduces the likelihood of other members of the family victim undergoing various tests to help in identifying the victim ( Mundorff, 2012). In marginalized societies where antemortem records such as X-rays are non-existent, forensic anthropologist focuses on identifying the victims through use a biological profile. Typically, the biological profile uses biological parameters such as age and sex. However, there sometimes is of limited value especially if the whole has been fractured and the only remaining materials are skeletal muscles.
Reconciliation
After forensic anthropologists have identified all the victims involved in the disaster, they also assist the quality control and agencies involved in the disaster management in reconciling the data collected. This consists in matching the human remains with the biological profile of particular individuals. This ensures that there are no validity or reliability issues in the methodology that was used. In some disasters such as WTC disaster, the process of reconciliation by forensic anthropologists helped in uncovering some mistakes that would have passed unnoticed. For instance, some skeletal bones that belonged to a female profile had been categorized as male. This would not have been discovered if a final anthropological review had not been considered.
In conclusion, forensic anthropologists play an essential role when it comes to evacuation process as well as the whole process of identifying victims. Their diverse knowledge in identifying anatomical structures, unique individualizing features and preservation of remains significantly contribute to quick identification when it comes to mass fatality events worldwide. The role of forensic anthropologists will continue to evolve in future depending on future developments. It is therefore vital for the government to continue providing highly skilled anthropologists through support training and professional training to ensure successful mass disaster operations.
References
Anderson, B. E., & Spradley, M. K. (2016). The role of the anthropologist in the identification of migrant remains in the American Southwest. Academic Forensic Pathology , 6 (3), 432-438.
Blau, S., & Briggs, C. A. (2011). The role of forensic anthropology in Disaster Victim Identification (DVI). Forensic science international , 205 (1-3), 29-35.
Mundorff, A. Z. (2012). Integrating forensic anthropology into disaster victim identification. Forensic science, medicine, and pathology , 8 (2), 131-139.
Prajapati, G., Sarode, S. C., Sarode, G. S., Shelke, P., Awan, K. H., & Patil, S. (2018). Role of forensic odontology in the identification of victims of major mass disasters across the world: A systematic review. PloS one , 13 (6), e0199791.
Rajshekar, M., & Tennant, M. (2014). The role of the forensic odontologist in disaster victim identification: A brief review. Malaysian J Forensic Sci , 5 , 78-85.
