Question → one of the basic stages of the scientific process if the formulation of the research question upon which the experiment or research is based. For instance, a scientist may observe phenomena, such as weathering, and might question how the events occur. Through this, the scientist formulates a question based on the phenomena.
Hypothesis → a hypothesis is a prediction of the answer to the research question.
Experiment → this is the actual test to prove whether the hypothesis is valid or not. It involves the use of variables that can be controlled to achieve the objective of the experiment.
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Observations → this refers to the facts discovered while experimenting.
Analysis → the facts that are discovered from the experiment are then analyzed to make the data obtained from the experiment meaningful.
The conclusion → The conclusion summarizes the findings of the experiment and states I the hypothesis formulated at the beginning of the experiment is true or false.
Describe the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
A hypothesis is a prediction of the answer to the research question, i.e., a prediction to how a phenomenon occurs while a theory, on the other hand, is a well-proven explanation of phenomena. The fundamental difference between a hypothesis and a theory is that a hypothesis has not been tested while theory has been tested and proven.
Define empirical data. Provide and describe an example of something about Earth that we know because of empirical data.
Empirical data refers data that has been obtained from experiment and observation. The acceleration due to gravity is an example of something we know about the earth because of empirical data. Sir Isaac Newton observed a mango falling and carried out experiments to determine this phenomenon. From his experiments, he concluded that the earth is spherical and object tend to be attracted towards its center. If the earth were flat, how the object fall in different geographical areas would have been different. Thus, through Newton’s discovery on the acceleration due to gravity we can calculate the force of a falling object given its mass.
You have observed that the sun rises in a different location at certain times of the year, and then back again. Describe a method of data collection that would help you define the range over the year for the sunrise on the horizon at your location.
I would find a fixed point and measure the angle between the fixed point and the rising sun at the beginning of the year. Let’s assume that at the start of the year the angle between the fixed point identified and the rising sun is 20 0 . This angle can be measured every day to determine how the angle shifts. At the end of the year, the range or margin of change can be calculated by subtracting the angle at the begging of the year from the angle measured at the end of the year.
Using empirical data, argue with a climate denial argument that, “it hasn’t warmed since 1998.” (http://www.skepticalscience.com/global-warming-stopped-in-1998-intermediate.htm (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. )
I deny this argument because it is founded on a satellite record of atmospheric temperature, which is also now showing that the earth is warming. Apart from the increase in land temperature, the sea or ocean temperatures are rising significantly as a result of the melting of ice and glaciers in the Polar Regions. Thus, I deny that argument as the temperature of the earth has been rising steadily since 1998.
Identify and describe one type of data collection that has an end, and one type of data collection that will always be ongoing.
An example of a typical data collection that has an end is data collection on the age of a rock. This type of data has an end because the age of a rock does not change. An example of a data collection that would be ongoing is data on weather pattern such as rainfall. Data on rain ought to be collected continuously to identify trends as well as weather patterns.
Part 2.
There has been very much in the news in recent years about increasing CO2 levels, and global warming. Using the Keeling Curve website (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/ (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. ), address the following.
Explain briefly the history of the Keeling Curve.
The kneeling is graphical of the accumulation of CO 2 in the earth’s atmosphere. The curve was developed from the 1950s by Dave Keeling. Keeling started and monitored the program until his death in 2005. He observed the diurnal and intense concentration of CO 2 at night because of the respiration from plants and soils. His experiments or measurements showed proof that the level of CO 2 is rising significantly. This warns us that we have to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Explain how this is empirical data.
Keeling curve is an example of empirical. This is because the curve obtains its data through experiments and tries to answer the question of the concentration of CO 2 levels in the atmosphere. The data collected is analyzed and used to project future trends.
Starting with the current week, and working back to 800,000 years ago, explain the trends seen in the data.
The level of carbon dioxide at Mauna Loa Observatory for the current week is 410.00 ppm while maximum concentration 800,000 years ago was 280 ppm. Due to the drastic increase in the emission of CO 2 because of the burning of fossil fuels, we expect the concertation of carbon dioxide to rise to around 1000 ppm over the next few decades if these levels are not controlled.
How is the Keeling Curve an example of the scientific method?
Dave Keeling formulated a question regarding the concertation of carbon dioxide in the air. He then designed an experiment to determine the level of the gas every day at the same time, controlling outside variables. In his analysis, he realized that the concentration tended to be high during the night compared to the day. Keeling concluded that the high level of CO 2 at night was due to respiration of plants.
Part 3
In your field of study, identify and describe one way in which empirical data is collected and used.
In the field astronomy, empirical data can be found through observation and through the use of technology to gather data about the space and heavily bodies. This data can then be analyzed and conclusions or findings are drawn from them.
Section 2
Earthquakes, Geologic Structures, and Plate Tectonics
Part 1
Use your textbook and interactive lab lecture to answer the following questions about earthquake measurement.
Use figure 6.20, page 184 in your textbook to help you fill in the blanks: S-P, sec Magnitude Amplitude mm 4 5 8 4 5.5 100 2 20
| S-P, Sec | Magnitude, M L4 | Amplitude, mm |
| 4 | 3 | 5 |
| 8 | 4 | 20 |
| 25 | 5.5 | 100 |
| 2 | 3 | 20 |
The Pacific plate is moving at an average of 5 cm per year, but this has changed over time. Use the following schematic to calculate the average rate of movement from Kilauea to:
*divide the number of km by number of millions of years, then multiply by 0.1 for conversion to cm/year
Midway→
Gardner→
Necker →
Oahu →
Describe the difference between the Mercalli Scale and Richter scale.
The Ritcher scale is a mathematical representation of the intensity of the earthquake, as measured on a seismograph, while the Mercalli scale measures how people feel and react to the earthquake or shaking of the ground.
How many times more ground shaking happens with a 6.0 earthquake over a 4.0 earthquake?
The Richer scale which is used to measure the magnitudes of earthquakes is based on a logarithmic scale of the base. This means a 6.0 earthquake causes 100 times (10^2) the amount of ground shaking than a 4.0 earthquake.
How many times more energy is release with a 6.0 over a 4.0 earthquake?
The formula used is;
Therefore an earthquake of 6.0 releases energy 1,000 times the energy released by 4.0 earthquake.
Describe the P waves, S waves, and surface waves.
A P wave, or primary wave, is a longitudinal earthquake wave that propagates through the interior of the earth and is usually the first conspicuous wave to be recorded on a seismograph. They cause compression and stretching of the rock material.
An S wave, or secondary wave, is a seismic body wave that the shakes the earth’s crust back and forth perpendicular to the direction the wave is propagating.
The surface wave is a seismic wave that is trapped near the surface of the earth. This type of wave causes significant damage to structures.
Part 2
Use your textbook and interactive lab lecture to answer the following questions in your own words.
In a compressional regime, would we find more normal or more reverse faults, and why.
Compression results in more reverse faults. This is because the upward movement of the hanging wall blocks allows for the shortening of the Earth’s crust.
Would we find normal faults in a compressional regime or tensional regime, and why?
Mostly, normal faults are found in tensional regimes. This is because the upward movement of the hanging wall block allows the crust to stretch.
Describe the differences between a normal fault and a reverse fault.
The fundamental difference between a normal fault and a reverse fault is on the relative movement of the hanging wall to the footwall block. In a normal fault, the hanging wall block moves up relative to the footwall block while in a reverse fault, the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block.
Describe the differences between anticlines and synclines.
Anticlines are folds in which each half of the fold dip away from the crest while synclines are folded in which each half of the fold dips towards the trough of the fold.
Describe the difference in the rock unit age relationship between domes and basins .
In domes, the center is composed of oldest rocks while the outer edges are composed of rocks are young. On the other hand, in basins, the center of the basin is formed of younger rocks while the outer edges are composed of the older rocks.
Describe a strike-slip fault. Provide an example of one.
A strike-slip fault is a type of fault where the plates move horizontally to the direction of the fault surface. An example of a strike-slip fault is the Anatolian fault.
Which of the structures discussed above is the result of brittle deformation?
One of the structures discussed above which is as a result of brittle deformation are faults, such as the strike-slip faults and reverse fault.
Which of the structures discussed above are the result of ductile deformation?
One of the structures discussed above which is as a result of ductile deformation are folded, such as anticlines, synclines, basins, and domes.
Using the diagrams below
Which of these are the result of ductile deformation?
A, C, E, and I.
Which of these diagrams are brittle deformation?
B, D, F, G, and H.
