Gender roles are a social construct, which has been used throughout history to determine the roles individuals will play based on their obvious biological differences. These genders roles are not definite since each society has the discretion to determine which roles women and men play at any particular time. Of importance, is the fact that these socially constructed roles are not static but keep on changing in response to changing social, political, and economic needs. These socially constructed roles are what has helped societies to become civilized moving from small and organized societies to become powerful nations. Religion was used by early civilizations to enforce these gender roles establishing that women were second class citizens something that can still be seen in modern societies. It should be noted that while gender roles differ in different societies, women and men have played complementary roles to foster the growth of their societies. At times, women undertook roles associated with men and vice versa to seal gaps which would otherwise have threatened their societies at the time. This trend continues to today as more people realize that one’s abilities cannot be limited by the existing social constructs. Individuals who defy these social constructs do so to ensure that their societies continue to thrive thus enhancing modern civilization.
Examples of Early Western Civilizations
There are several early western civilizations that can be used to establish how gender roles were constructed which then creates a basis to understand the changes that have occurred over time.
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The Roman Empire
The Roman Empire, which was famous for its gladiatorial battles, was a male-dominated society where the women were involved in the typical domestic chores. Most specifically the women in the Roman Empire raised children, attended to the slaves and other homely chores. Males were the leaders of households and this role was strengthened by the fact that the eldest male became the head of the family. Moreover, the men were the ones who attended to the household’s financial, business and legal affairs This difference in gender role could be seen in naming in that males had three names while women had only one name which would run out of use as they would be referred using the husband’s name. 1 Women from higher social classes were lucky as they were allowed to study in several academic areas including literature and philosophy. However, these women were still viewed as lower than their husbands and other male members in the family. At times, women were allowed to own property but they had to meet certain criteria such as being a widow and having at least three children. A woman who met these restrictive criteria would be allowed to take care of the household’s financial affairs and even own a business and other forms of property.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire one of the earliest civilizations was crucial in defining gender roles. Unlike other empires, Christianity influenced the gender roles in this empire. One key aspect of this empire is its insistence on the idea of virginity, which rested solely on the women. The idea of a virtuous woman took root in this empire and this kind of woman was considered ideal. Following this idea, society separated men and women with families becoming responsible for ensuring that women remained virtuous for their future husbands. 2 Nonetheless, this insistence did not change the fact that the women were second-class citizens whose destiny was to marry, bear children, and manage their households. In this regard, the women were uneducated and if they got any education, it was conducted in their households. The education they received helped them to work in lower jobs such as agricultural, manufacturing, retail, and hospitality industries. It should be noted that baking, weaving, midwifery, and nonpolitical jobs were the preserve of women. This empire was a bit lenient as it allowed women to own their business, which gave the women a chance to compete with their male counterparts. On the other hand, the men of this empire like in many other societies worked in the military, held political power and were the heads of their families. Moreover, the men in this power could hold important religious functions something the women would not do.
Viking Civilization
This early Scandinavian civilization was different from other early civilizations especially when it came to how women were treated and viewed. In this civilization, women held important roles in the communities. Women ruled their communities in addition to having a lot of freedom to make decisions. For instance, Vikings women could request for a divorce, own property and every reclaims their dowries in case the marriage ended. 3 However, these women married at an early age between 12 and 15 years and these marriages were usually arranged which shows that they were limited in their freedom. Nonetheless, the Viking women were allowed to have the final say as to whether they would get married or not. On the other and, Viking men headed their households but the women had important roles too. In case a man died or was absent, his wife assumed complete control of the household command. The Viking women were so powerful that they fought in battle alongside their male counterparts.
Mesoamerica
This civilization, which was made up of several units just like any other civilization, was guided by specified gender roles. The Ancient Maya civilization held women in high regard as they were equated to their male counterparts. The fact that women bore children contributed to their importance seeing that they ensured the perpetuity of the society. 4 As such, women had the liberty to take part in both economic and political discussions, in addition, practicing farming. Of the importance of the religious role that women played in religious rituals something that was not possible in other civilizations. Early artistic works depict the women in civilization taking up male-dominated careers such as shield maidens and women who learned swordplay and other skills, which could be used in battles. From these depictions, it is clear that women were prepped to take up more roles associated with males thus creating a room to do away with the patterned gender roles of the day.
Women roles in Early Civilizations 1890-1920
Modern nations have undergone various changes in the past, which have been made possible by the selfless contribution of many men and women. Women have been great pillars who have thrived in the various social roles that have been set aside particularly for the women. Most civilizations viewed women as weaker as compared to men and were thus assigned lighter and supportive roles. Women in early civilizations were responsible for taking care of their husbands and children by creating a homely environment for the families to thrive. Those unmarried and women who found work outside of the homes ended working in feminine and domestic jobs. Women in this era were restricted by the Victorian idea which viewed women as limited in their abilities to survive in a male-dominated society 5 . As such women were expected to focus on their domestic roles which were considered worthwhile and rewarding.
This period brought a shift into the role of women owing to World War I lasting from 1914-1918. The first world wars marked a period of global supremacy with most nations waging wars against each other. These wars saw men and women alike take up some roles to ensure the safety of their families and nations alike. While some women stuck to their domestic roles as defined by their societies, others played masculine roles fighting alongside their male counterparts, In particular, most men left their work to join the army leaving many vacancies in industries and factories. Women filled these vacancies though there were initial oppositions from individuals who felt that these women were doing ‘men’s work’. However, the demand for weapons and the introduction of conscription in enhanced this transition. From here, more women got employment in male-dominated fields bringing about a revolution on gender roles.
The First World War opened new employment opportunities for women who could now work as ticket collectors, railway guards, postal workers, clerks, tram conductors among others. Other women went a niche higher by working on heavy machinery as engineers or led carthorses in addition to becoming civil servants. 6 In spite of these new positions and employment opportunities, these women got second-rate citizens’ treatment as they received low wages, which was typical of a gendered society. From here, the women became proactive members of society by demanding equal pay. However, their efforts to have equal pay failed since it was decided that women have lesser strength and thus their output cannot equal that of the males. Sit is for this reason that most of the women were sacked when the men returned or allowed to work alongside the men but for lower pay. These assumptions only help to propagate these socially constructed roles, which have failed to pave way for a new form of thinking.
A shift in the gender roles
The concept of gender roles as established is a social construct aimed at helping society to meet the demands of that particular society at a specific period. These gender roles are not cast on stone and are roe to change with women and men alike taking up roles considered to be a preserve of the opposite gender. Women, in particular, started taking up masculine roles as early as eighteenth-century owing to various social, political, and economic demands. Some women either by choice or necessity felt uncomfortable being homemakers who waited for instructions from the males around them. These women felt that they would be able to do more to assist their societies to move beyond their current states. The women in this era chose to become gamblers, artists, prospectors, musicians, rodeo personalities among other masculine jobs at the time. Some of these women include Matie Babel a cowgirl cornetist, Kate Barnard, Oklahoma state official, and Evelyn Cameron a photographer among others. The images of some of these women can be found in the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. 7
The women who felt the need to break the oppressive socially constructed roles set a pace for their contemporaries and modern women. While these women took such a daring step, their actions were received with mixed reactions from different factions in their respective societies. Some individuals felt that the women who hoped to thrive in masculine fields were defiant and became the source or ridicule and scorn. Still, other women got encouraged to pursue these careers. The efforts of these women brought about new thinking on the role of women concerning how they can still handle masculine jobs. Perhaps this proposition can be evident in the Second World War. Unlike in the first world war, the Second World War offered women more lucrative jobs in the male-dominated fields. For the first time, women joined the military as pilots and engineers. A group of women was even hired to make an atomic bomb. This era marked a new beginning for women who were ready to shake off the social tag of ‘American housewife’. 8 These women were now ready to remain in the workforce in spite of the fact that the end of WW2 would mean losing their jobs.
The significance of religion in enhancing gender roles
Religion played and continues to play a central role in initiating and propagating gender roles. Societies construct gender roles to conform to existing religious demands. This proposition is evident in the Byzantine Empire, which emphasized that women had to be virgins before they got married which is in line with Christianity, which rides on purity. One can clearly see that there was no demand on the side of the men something that mirrors Christianity. The women who were caught committing adultery was bound to be stoned to death and her accusers never bothered to know which man was caught with her. Moreover, religion used to establish who is supposed to head the family and who is supposed to be submissive. Most religions place the men at the helm of the leadership with women taking a secondary role where they are to be seen and not to be heard. Women are called upon to respect their husbands and to be submissive doing everything they are being told without question. The same respect is expected of the children who like the women have no place in decision making as they play a passive role.
Sex versus Gender
The two concepts of sex and gender are interrelated in terms of connotations though they mean different things altogether. Sex which common of the two is used to denote the distinct and obvious biological differences between females 9 . Some of these biological characteristics include genitalia, breasts beards, internal reproductive organs, and other hereditary characteristics. One can easily pick out between a man and a woman based on observation. Nonetheless, it is important to understand that physical features are not enough to measure to determine an individual’s masculinity or femininity. The reason for this claim is the fact that there are individuals who have male sexual characteristics but are more comfortable being females and vice versa. In fact, some individuals have gone to the extent of having a sex change surgery to fit within their preferred sex. This factor then forces individuals to rethink sex as something that is not defined only by physical appearances but also by individuals’ mental disposition.
On the other hand, gender which is a bit more complicated refers to the roles that a particular society sets aside for the males and females. These roles are not distinct and are likely to differ from one society. For example, most communities regard women as homemakers and caregivers who are likely to take on simpler tasks that do not require much strength. Moreover, women are viewed as second-class citizens with fewer rights per se and must consult with men before making any meaningful decisions. Still, other societies view women as equals to the male or even place the women higher than the males. This proposition is true especially when one considers matriarchal societies, which places more authority and women while pushing men to secondary roles. The concept of gender is quite rigid and inflexible and individuals who try to operate within its confines are considered as deserters who want to destabilize the status quo. 10 However, this does not mean that gender role are cast on stone as changing times are forcing communities to rethink on their stand concerning gender roles.
Women and Children as Property
Women and children hold a lower level in society as compared to the men since they are viewed as property. This then means that women and children have no say even in the matters that concern them largely. Perhaps this is the reason that some societies allow its men to marry as many women as possible and the women tend to agree with them. 11 In fact, some societies measure a man’s wealth in terms of the number of wives and children a particular man has. The more the wives and children the more a man is likely to get respect and even ascend to positions of power. Just like property, women are to be nurtured and treated whichever way the man chooses. If a man decides to divorce his wife, the woman obeys without question as if she is being disposed of for becoming obsolete. Children, on the other hand, have no authority to question or offer decisions and their input is considered uninformed and unnecessary. An attempt to question the actions of the man are frowned upon and can lead to serious repercussions.
Many societies are patriarchal meaning that the men own the means of production including farmlands, industries and other means of production. Particularly men are considered as breadwinners who have the responsibility of feeding, housing, clothing, and educating their families. Women, on the other hand, do not possess these means of production and rely on the goodwill of the men to survive. This capitalism system as envisaged by Karl Marx puts women at a disadvantage, as they have to impress the men to survive and have significance. 12 Consequently, women are reduced to sexual objects to gratify men’s desire. In turn, men then treat women as items, objects or property which can be used as the men please. However, it should be noted that the times are changing as more women become independent of male support. Nonetheless, the notion of women as the property continues to plague societies since this notion is deeply ingrained in individuals’ mindsets.
In conclusion, the concept of gender plays a significant role in determining how women and men are supposed to relate as they work towards fostering their societies. Gender is to be differentiated from sex since unlike sex, which stresses on biological differences, gender emphasizes on social roles. These social roles which differ from one society to another put demarcations on how far individuals can go in terms of role. Some societies place men at the helm of leadership giving men more authority when it comes to running political, social, and economic affairs. Other communities view women as weaker thus releasing them to simpler tasks, which do not require much strength or thinking. However, this notion has been put into question severally and continues to be put to test. History records women who stood up to be counted as individuals who could handle the same tasks that men handle with much ease. The two world wars saw women feel positions that were left vacant by men who went to wars with ease. In spite of these efforts, the society has failed to recognize the potential that lies in women. Instead, they are still viewed as individuals who are supposed to remain in the background where they are to be seen and not be heard. Religion plays a central role as it still views women as individual who should submit to men’s authority. It is likely that these divisive gender roles will go on since they are ingrained in individuals’ mindset.
Bibliography
“Not Just a Housewife: The Changing Roles of Women in the West.” National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum . https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/explore/just-housewife-changing-roles-women-west/ (Accessed on March 4, 2019).
Gilkison, Taylor, "The Transformation of Gender and Sexuality in 1920s America: A Literary Interpretation." College thesis. Western Kentucky University, Kentucky, 2017, Digital Commons .
Hanna, Rosin. The End of Men: And the Rise of Women . New York: Penguin Books, 2012. Print
Rasky Eva, Anja Waxenegger, Sylvia Groth, Erwin Stolz, Michel Schenouda, and Andrea Berzlanovich “Sex and gender matters,” Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 129, no. 21 (2017): 781-785.
Reinsch, Ole, “Flapper Girls - Feminism and Consumer Society in the 1920s.” Gender Forum 40 (2012): 1-6.
1 Rosin Hanna, The End of Men: And the Rise of Women, [New York: Penguin Books, 2012],56-58.
2 Ibid., 59-61
3 Ibid, 67-69.
4 Ibid, 75-76.
5 Ole Reinsch, “Flapper Girls - Feminism and Consumer Society in the 1920s,” Gender Forum 40 (2012): 4.
6 Taylor Gilkison, "The Transformation of Gender and Sexuality in 1920s America: A Literary Interpretation," College thesis. Western Kentucky University, Kentucky, 2017, Digital Commons.
7 “Not Just a Housewife: The Changing Roles of Women in the West,” National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum, https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/explore/just-housewife-changing-roles-women-west/ (Accessed on March 4, 2019).
8 Taylor, The Transformation of Gender, 20
9 Rasky Eva, Anja Waxenegger, Sylvia Groth, Erwin Stolz, Michel Schenouda, and Andrea Berzlanovich, “Sex and gender matters,” [ Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 129, no. 21 (2017)], 781-785.
10 Rasky Eva et al., “Sex and Gender Matters”, 786.
11 Taylor, "The Transformation of Gender”, 30.
12 Ibid, 40.
