The dispensation of services and benefits by street level bureaucracies through interaction with citizens requires a lot of improvisation. Since the policy objectives must be met, the workers have to practice discretionary judgement. Street-level bureaucrats practice discretionary judgment through rationing of information to some clients (Lipsky p.267). Another way of practicing discretionary judgment is through allocation of time cost to clients in order to maximize their own efficiency of time (Lipsky p.266). Psychological sanctions imposed on clients to reduce demand for service is another means that public workers employ discretionary judgement (Lipsky p.270). Discretionary judgment may lead to discrimination since the rationing and routines are meant to deter some members of the public from accessing services.
The holocaust according to Zygmunt was inline with the patterns of modern bureaucracy and not a shift from its structures and visions. The rationality of the modern world was an essential prerequisite of the holocaust (Ritzer p.33). The western civilization and its objective of creating a perfectly rational society was what led to the goal of elimination of certain classes of people (Ritzer p.34). In such a rationalized system, the mechanism of modern word was what led to the extermination of high numbers of people (Ritzer p.34). The inefficient methods of the premodern world would not allow killings in such a magnitude, but the rationality of that society would still harbor such desires. It was also the same rationality mentality that caused collaboration by Jews in assisting the Nazi’s to commit atrocities.
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The shop operators are usually renumerated based on an incentive scheme that is individualized on the rate. The activities of the shop can be perceived as a game in which operators aim to attain rates of production that incentives them (Burawoy p.170). Production rates of over 100 percent earn incentives which act a motivation for workers to put in more effort (Burawoy p.172). Awarding of time and effort by the foreman to the workers is a useful resource in making the workers commit extra hours and effort. Games are critical in establishing opposition of interest which contributes to creating of rules different from those imposed. Similar to games involving shop operators, choices presented to us by capitalists makes us generate consent to the rules of capitalism.
The idea that workers should cooperate with managers forms the central tenant of Taylorism. According to Braverman, the real meaning of Taylorism can be determined by three principles. The first principle requires that managers collect all necessary traditional knowledge about a task that workers handle (Braverman p.56). This principle enables managers to recognize and implement practices that workers apply in making doing tasks efficiently. Second principle focuses on separating the worker from all scientific methodology involved in the conception of work (Braverman p.57). This principle serves to ensure cheapening of the worker and management control by limiting the data and reasoning of tasks that is availed to the worker. The third principle focuses on the preplanning of tasks for workers as an imagination of the manager using the monopoly of knowledge.
In any struggle the success depends on the level of unity the individuals have towards a common interest. In the event of a dispute, it becomes impractical to gather all members in an organization to be able to settle it (Michels p. 29). The parity of reasoning makes it impossible for all members of an organization to decide on matters democratically (Michels p. 29). Delegation to a particular number of individuals becomes the logical thing to do. The delegated individuals begin to undertake complicated tasks that mandate the group to consider other aptitudes rather than leave the position to chance of pure democracy (Michels p. 30). The organization sets up qualifications that individuals must possess to hold such a position.
Scientific management refers to the new type of managing workers by replacing the traditional methods of imitative and incentive to workers (Taylor p.46). New methods in scientific management have four main elements. First, the manager gathers all traditional knowledge related to the work and reducing this knowledge to specific rules (Taylor p. 47). The manager then selects and trains the workmen on the new methods and rules of work. Thirdly, cooperation is fostered to ensure all work is done accordingly. The final element is ensuring equal division of responsibility between the workmen and manager. Taylor objective refers to the task idea of planning the workman’s instruction a day before as part of the one half of responsibility of the management.
Marx states that bureaucrats are the theologians of the state. He insinuates that bureaucracy as being the imagined state behind the real state (Marx p. 20). Marx justifies this point by saying that bureaucrats meant to work for the state invert their purpose by considering themselves as the state. He calls this spiritualization of the state where everything has a double meaning, the real and bureaucratic meaning (Marx p.20). Bureaucracy, he says privatizes the essence of the state. The individual bureaucrats indulge in materialism as he aims to get a higher position. The bureaucrat tends to become intentional in their purpose after achieving self-consciousness.
The effects of division of labor are the classification of the laborers according to their own qualities. If the separation of labor is done on the basis of their natural endowments, a new dimension will be introduced to for special functions (Marx p. 415). This act converts the laborer into a nonfailing perfectionist. The new task comes with different values which require training (Marx p. 415). The manufacturer through this training further distinguishes each craft into skilled and unskilled labor. The laborer is eventually converted into an automatic individual of operation. This system is similar to the hierarchical rational system since it divides workers and reduces their labor power into specialties.
Rationalism according to Weber employs scientific knowledge as a basis of establishing structures and systems. Calculations have been utilized in creating modern bookkeeping to suit capitalistic interests (Weber p. 94). The development of legal and admirative laws is also done to suit the economic needs under rationalism. Rationalism developed from Protestant ethic that viewed labor as a godly virtue and idleness as a sin. Its roots in the teachings of St. Paul that stated those who work should not eat were emphasized by later Christian teachings. The idea of calling by God also made an individual to labor diligently into the unique work of the calling (Weber p. 95). Rationalism forms a basis of capitalism by consistently attributing labor and workmanship to a divine calling. All knowledge was to be utilized in making economic structures a success.
Bureaucracy according to Weber refers to an impersonal but structured organization. In a bureaucracy there are rules and authority. Bureaucracy also has attributes of division of labor that emphasize on technical qualification. The permanent character of bureaucracy is difficult to change due to the inflexible nature of the system. The system does not benefit the laborer but the management or government. Change in a bureaucracy is not encouraged because they won’t benefit the upper classes in the system (Weber p. 101). The incentives of growing into higher status also works to ensure individuals don’t seek change.
Assignment 2
Neoliberalism as a system based on free market ideologies has been dominant in western countries over the past few decades. The limited government characteristic of neoliberalism has been argued to be a strong foundation for individual freedom. The system, however does not contribute to representation of freedom since its objective of putting power on those with capital is self-defeating. The US invasion of Iraq demonstrates the lack of sovereignty of nations in the global integration of nations since those with the most capital exert power over others (Harvey p7). The Chilean case as an experiment for neoliberalism has also resulted low decision-making ability of the government.
Polanyi argues that reciprocity and redistribution are primary human behaviors that control economics. The market cannot be self-regulated since the motives of people are determined by the socially motivated conduct. In such a system, self-interest as prerequisite of self-regulated market is not the main determining factor. On a national scale the interest of a country can be attuned to Nazism and Fascism which hinder the global push for a self-regulating market. The principles. The material interest of a given class will deter any measure that aim towards self-regulation (Weber). It is important to analyze the society in a wider scope in order to determine economic interests.
The modern state according to Weber refers to a political entity with a monopoly of violence. He explains that a state must be territorial with defined borders. The state does not hesitate to conduct acts of violence against its citizens when allegiance is not given. This use of violence is carried out under the justification of legitimacy. Weber describes politicians as the charismatic authority in the legitimacy of the state. Politician must have ethic of responsibility by exciting the emotions of the people but govern strictly with reason (Weber). The politician must use the state legitimate violence for a greater good. Weber views bureaucrats as rational-legal authority in achieving the purpose of the state.
Capitalist nations use imperialism to further their exploits for economic development. Imperialism provides an avenue for capitalist nations to expand their growing concentration of production. As an extension of capitalism, imperialism divides the nations into classes. A closed internal system does not satisfy the extraction of profit-making nations extend their economic exploits in new territories (Lane p.38). Imperialism benefits the capitalists by creating a renewal of their extraction of surplus value and demand for their goods. It also helps control revolution by settling the surplus unemployment population in new territorial exploits. The large profits obtained from imperialism benefits workers of the nation and help in acquiring their loyalty.
Weber argues that rationalism has its roots in Protestant ethic of divine calling to work. He states that the idea of the calling acts as a reasonable basis for the making labor a virtuous endeavor. Idleness and time wastage are considered sin in Protestant ethic. This ethics was what led to the origin of rationalism since it employs faith in daily lives of individuals. Rationalism is key to capitalism by using knowledge to advance the capital interests. Existing and new knowledge such as mathematics and law are perceived as tools to further capitalism and bureaucracy (Weber p.96).
Marx though on division of labor insinuates that it contributes to inequality. He explains this by showing how the manufacturer introduces new attributes to labor divisions that are centered on power dynamics. In division of labor the natural endowered abilities of workers are reduced to automatic motors. Further separation occurs when the labor is divided between the unskilled and skilled. The manufacturer adds training for more specialization of the skilled workforce to cause further inequality and power dimensions (Marx). This specialized labor capital must be traded for capital and cannot exist without being complimented. In the end, the initially labor equal labor force is disintegrated into classed of different qualities.
According to Marx, capitalism is fueled by driven people who fear to run bankrupt. Though the system produces new innovations, it exploits the raw materials and workers in achieving these fates. The original source of wealth is undermined in capitalism. When the resources are stretched too much, the society is exposed to crisis and violence. The conditions for overthrowing the proletariat are a concentration of capital causing a gap that is too large between the poor and the wealthy and elimination of the middle class (Marx & Engels p. 26). This condition would lead to a revolution and all productive forces to be socialized.
By the term, markets are not natural the authors refer to the fact that markets do not exist automatically. The markets also do not have exact common traits where they exist in different places. Though markets are real, they are not beyond human control (Carruthers & Babb p.5). The market is not as natural as the weather with is beyond human control. Markets exist with attributes shaped by different societies. An example of included property rights as a factor governing markets are not natural but human constructs.
