Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., & Barnes, J. C. (2016). Racial Discrimination, Weakened School Bonds, and Problematic Behaviors: Testing a Theory of African American Offending. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(2), 139-164.
Unnever, Cullen, and Barnes (2016) present both the Gabbidon and Unnever's theories that suggest racial discrimination among the African American bars them from forming meaningful connections with their schools, which increases their likelihood to engage in problematic behavior. Unnever, Cullen, and Barnes (2016) also argue that racial discrimination among African American youths is their pathway to delinquency according to research that was performed in Chicago neighborhoods. The discrimination leads to school dropouts, and therefore, the youth have much idle time, which leads them to delinquency. Unnever, Cullen, and Barnes (2016) also report that stigma is yet another cause for the African American delinquency. After being jailed, especially for reasons linked with racial discrimination, the African American youths may turn to more crime and offending.
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Isom, D. (2016). Microaggressions, Injustices, and Racial Identity: An Empirical Assessment of the Theory of African American Offending. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32(1), 27-59.
The racial identity of African Americans has made them an easy target of discrimination (Isom, 2016). According to a subsample of the African American youths who participated in the research on Chicago neighborhoods, racial discrimination is the central criminal injustice that the African American youths face, which accelerates their offending. According to Isom (2016), the perceptions of racial discrimination among college students are known to lead to increased offending. The more the students are likely to be racially discriminated against, the likelier they are to engage in acts of offending.
Unnever, J. D., Barnes, J. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2016). The Racial Invariance Thesis Revisited: Testing an African American Theory of Offending. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32(1), 7-26.
The thesis of racial invariance has been reported to be the foundation of crime in a massive way. Unnever, Barnes, and Cullen (2016) affirm that according to the thesis, every human being engages in crime for the same reasons. Racial discrimination, therefore, serves to accelerate the thesis of racial invariance. The authors also observe that criminal justice in the US is characterized by criminal injustice, which primarily affects the members of the African American population. The action has led to the prevalence of crime among African Americans based on their discrimination.
References
Isom, D. (2016). Microaggressions, Injustices, and Racial Identity: An Empirical Assessment of the Theory of African American Offending. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32 (1), 27-59.
Unnever, J. D., Barnes, J. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2016). The Racial Invariance Thesis Revisited: Testing an African American Theory of Offending. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32 (1), 7-26.
Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., & Barnes, J. C. (2016). Racial Discrimination, Weakened School Bonds, and Problematic Behaviors: Testing a Theory of African American Offending. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53 (2), 139-164.
