The novel, The Three Kingdoms begins with the quote “the empire, long divided must unite and the long united must divide”. This quote prepares the stage for the book to set in. The novel is without a doubt the most significant period in world history. Rather than maintain a single stately family line from the turn of the century to turn of the century just like Japan, China had established its traditional succession of ruling dynasties or houses. These dynasties rose and fell drastically in a cyclical form. While the three kingdoms had their unmatched success, their failure was so drastic that it became a critical turning point in world history. The fall of the Three Kingdoms can trace back to the shortcomings of the first generation of strategists and warriors. China lacked what is found in most civilized societies to cope up with the changes that took place. This research paper will discuss the three kingdoms, its moral principles and Confucian believes it espoused.
Appropriateness
Appropriateness means what is right to do. The author of The Three Kingdoms embodies the Confucian virtue of propriety in describing and creating his character and relations. Although appropriateness seems to be a more robust and effective virtue in the novel, it also lacks in some aspects thus becomes unable to provide answers to a wanting society (Besio, 2012). Throughout The Three Kingdoms, rites (the societies’ morals or customs) are the determinant of appropriateness. These rites constituted the ideal structure of Confucius. Human social hierarchy formed the basis of Zhou rites. The social hierarchy modeled on family relationships. The Analects highlights that the roles of the individual best be left to the individual responsible, such as the son be the son, father the father and ruler be ruler. Further comments by Confucius implore members of the society not to move, look, listen or speak unless their actions are in tandem with the rites (Besio, 2012). Therefore, for one to be virtuous and upright, one must conceive the virtue of appropriateness accomplished through the observance of rites.
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Appropriate behavior should be in tandem with social rites. Mencius groups' ceremonies and appropriateness govern all relations. There seems to be a lack of rigidity in Confucius in terms of observance to rituals. They should not adhere to rites with a blind eye but rather, accompanied by intellectual reflection. Under certain circumstances, individuals are allowed to deviate from social rituals. However, individual evaluation and judgment are applicable where there is not an explicit rule that gives guidance (Besio, 2012). According to Confucius, appropriateness is supreme since nothing can override it in a Confucius society. Put more precisely, whatever is considered right may not meet the requirements of the ritual norms making the right to precede rites.
Appropriateness helps in the determination of what is right when a person departs from social rites. Appropriateness ensures all affairs remain in order. The master dictates that appropriateness is highly regarded as essential stuff by the gentleman while the ceremonies are his ways of effecting appropriateness (Besio, 2012). Thus, suitability determines how the ritual norms are applied. Appropriateness ensures social rites are maintained in a conventional sense. However, traditional Confucianism lacks clear guidelines and specifications on the circumstances under which appropriateness should depart from social rituals. It thus opens doors for moral conflicts and dilemma.
The missing link between rites and appropriateness is where The Three Kingdoms heavily rely upon. The conflict between Liu Bei and Cao Cao is what the novel talks about. Liu Bei was the genuine heir to Han whereas Cao Cao became the usurper.
The Three Kingdoms conceives Confucianism whose doctrines are heavenly mandates. The transition from the Shang dynasty (1766-1122BCE) to the Zhou dynasty (1122-256BCE) is marked by the divine mandate (Chinaeducenter, 2018). This novel also weaves in elements of Confucianism whose doctrines are based principally on The Mandate of Heaven and violation of macrocosmic concepts through immorality, corruption, and misrule. These resulted in the deposition of power from Shang by the Zhou Dynasty. Heaven reserved the right to interpose in the microcosm especially when discord threatens (Chinaeducenter, 2018). Political corruption made the emperor, also called the son of heaven unfit to rule; therefore, the Mandate of Heaven can legally be transferred to another who was better and morally qualified. The Mandate of Heaven encapsulates the main principles of principles of Confucianism: ren (benevolence), xiao (filial piety), and li (propriety and convention), which secured harmony and equilibrium with the macrocosms (nature and heaven) and the microcosm (man's affairs). It is through the application of the principle of the Mandate of Heaven that the Han dynasty is overthrown. Zhang Jiao was the catalyst in the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 A.D. Jiao began the revolution to undermine and collapse the Han Dynasty due to social injustices experienced by citizens (Chinaeducenter, 2018).
Daoism constitutes a large part of the novel since its ideals and teachings practiced by the characters of The Romance of Three Kingdoms (Chinaeducenter, 2018). Daoism is a peaceful religion which stands for order and harmony with nature and with a man. The premise reflected in the assertion, which compared being in a state of complete synchrony with nature was equal to being in synchrony with Dao. They acknowledged dualism, which was described as harmony with existing differences with nature. Zhuge Liang is an educated Taoist scholar who personifies some of the principles of Daoism. Dao which is "godlike and eternal" infers "the characteristics of nature and the universe" therefore enabling insight into the bond between men and the universe. Zhuge acts as an emissary, diplomat and successful martial strategist to Sun Quan. Zhuge Liang, as a Daoist peacekeeper, pacifies several warlords in the South, at the same time; he spearheads the Shu Han forces on expeditions to strengthen the Han Empire. He never dies on the battlefield but succumbs to tuberculosis. Zhuge Liang's strategies always triumph as he continually foils the plans of his adversaries.
The Romance of Three Kingdoms incorporates tenets from another Chinese classical text, The Art of War written by Sun Tzu, a notable Chinese general who explains the importance of the war to the state and gives pithy advice on martial techniques on how to maneuver one's army to secure the victory. The Battle of Xiaoting, the Red Cliffs and that of Wuzhang Plains are noteworthy collisions in the novel in which various arts of war implemented. Lu Bu observes that "Cao Cao knows something of the art of war" (Chinaeducenter, 2018).
Conflicts between warlords and Nobles
Out of the four major classical Chinese novels, the three kingdoms is founded on real history. The story about the three kingdoms begin towards the end of 184AD. The Han kingdom in China was so much corrupt. This was after several years of widespread unrest and drought. One of the largest rebellions in China led by peasants happened during this period. The rebellion was famously known as the yellow turban rebellion. It caused a number of activities that led to struggle for power between individuals with political intentions and the warlords. After many years of experiencing war, China became divided into three dynasties. These kingdoms existed until 280AD after which China was re-united once more. The most interesting aspect about this chaotic period is during unrest, individuals possessing good skills and abilities would use them maximally regardless of their background. Therefore, this era of war presents the very intelligent military strategists, strong and determined generals, the craftiest leaders in the political arena etc. These characters leave a lasting memory because of their abilities and character traits.
At a time when the kingdom was engulfed in violence, Sun Jian the then head of Changsha came across an imperial seal in a well at the destroyed city Luoyang, and hid it because of selfish reasons. Thus, he weakened his moral authority. Warlords began rising and fight against each other for power and land due to the lack of a stable central government which could give direction. In the North, Yuan Shao battled Gongsun Zan whereas Liu Biao was at war with Sun Jian in the south. The likes of Cao Cao and Liu Bei who did not even own land began mounting power.
Because of the rising conflicts, Cao Cao took control of Empire Xian from Dong Zhuo’s former subordinates. Yuan Shu gathered momentum in his quest for power with the support of an Emperor. He defeated his adversaries, more prominent of these victories was that against Yuan Shao. This victory enabled him found the Wei kingdom through uniting of the Northern China region.
War breaks out because of questions regarding the legitimacy of succession. As a consequence, China subdivides into three important branches with Cao Cao reigning in the north, Sun Quan ruling in the south, and Liu Bei controlling the west sector of China. The novel highlights a detailed chronology of historical data which elaborated the power struggles within the Han dynasty which inevitably precipitate its collapse.
An intricately woven book integrating accurate historical events merged with creative fiction, this book centers on themes such as brotherhood, an art of war and religion.
By the time the Han Dynasty came to an end, it split into three different kingdoms which were headed by different leaders. Cao Cao controlled cao Wwei, which was to the north of the River Yangtze, the Shu Han was headed by Lui Bei to the South west and lastly, San Quan took charge of the south region which was called Dong Wu (Travelchinaguide, 2018) . The records within the novel marked a very bloody period in China’s history.
Emergence of the Three Chinese Dynasties
In the early 220, Cao Cao passed on and his son succeeded him in the kingdom of Wei. In 221, Liu Bei acted in response to this by announcing himself the emperor of Han and his kingdom was named Shu Han. On the other hand, Sun Quan declared himself the emperor of Wu. War began between the three dynasties as they started invading one another. After many turns of events, one kingdom won the battle finally. From 265-420, the Jin Dynasty was established and lasted for that time. Emperor Wu found the first two periods of the dynasty which lasted from 265-316 (Chinaeducenter, 2018). In as much as it gave some short span of tranquility after qonquering Wu in AD 280, Jin was subdued by the attacking forces from the Eight Princes. When Han Zhao took over reigns from Huai in 311, the administrative city was Luoyang. Emperor Min succeeded him until the end of his reign to Zhao in 316 (Chinaeducenter, 2018).
The fragments of Jin were forced to flee to the South from the North where they dwelt thus establishing the Jin administration in Jiankang located to the south-east of Luoyang and Changan. Some of the very prominent families like that of Zhu, Gu, Lu, and Zhou all backed the decision to install prince Longya as the Ruler Yuan to the east Jin Rule from 317-420 soon after the South received the news about the fall of Changan.
Civil war broke out in china in the Southern and Northern Empires (420 -589). This caused rampant emigration to the south of China over this age of civil unrest, mainly because of frequent attacks from the Nomads from the North (Travelchinaguide, 2018). Technological advancements were notable, despite the civil unrest and instability. The prominent inventions of the time included gunpowder and the wheelbarrow, medicine also improved over this era.
Emperor Wen established the capital of the Sui Dynasty at Changan (Travelchinaguide, 2018). His rule however short, was significant for the construction of the Grand Canal. There were many reforms implemented during the rule of Wen and Yang such as the equalization of land system. This measure reduced poverty by successfully reducing the gap between the rich and the poor. A centralization of administration and creation of a monetary system also followed as a result. All these encouraged better administration of the kingdom, enabling the extension of the Great wall, better military prowess, higher farming productivity and a unification of the diverse Chinese cultures in the kingdom.
The founding rulers of each monarchy were dedicated to improving their way of governing and developing the economic state of their nation. Cao Cao reformed the Wei kingdom by eliminating irrelevant policies from previous rulers. National productivity increased through implementation of the Tun Tian, where soldiers did farming. (Travelchinaguide, 2018) . Zhunge improved his Shu monarchy by using an improved justice system. He also improved agriculture and industrialized handicraft. He encouraged charismatic relations with the Southwestern tribes in his kingdom. The result was improved ship manufacturing. Overall, the Wei monarchy led in strength, followed by Wu and finally Shu.
Historical evidence shows a significant of battles between the three monarchies, such as the fight for Jinzhou between Shu and Wu, a brutal battle for Hanzhong between Shu and Wei, and the defeat to Wei by Shu (Travelchinaguide, 2018). The period of the three kingdoms came to an end when the Sima Yan came to the picture (264 – 420). He stablished the Jin Empire and conquered the last kingdom in 282.
The demise of the Three Chinese Dynasties
The many years of battle between Wei and Shu caused very many changes in the Cao family which was ruling in Wei. The power of the Caos grew weak after the death of Cao Cao.
Zhunge Liang’s Crusade was continued by Jiang Wei for thirty years because of his exceptional leadership. Huang Hao mislead Lui Bei, son of Lui Shan, compelling him to ignore the advice of Jiang Wei and made a terrible tactical error in battle. Deng Ai attacked Shu-Han by invading Chengdu which was the capital of Shu Han using a shortcut (Travelchinaguide, 2018). The dynasty power was taken over by Sima Yi and finally his sons. Liu Shan was not competent in his leadership because he was surrounded by corrupt officials in whom he placed so much trust. This rebellion was unsuccessful, forcing Shu to take his own life by a sword as his last stand.
The death of Sun Quan instigated internal conflict in eastern Wu. Zhunge was assassinated as he tried to take the throne by Sun Lin. Sun Xui deposed Sun Lin as emperor of Eastern Wu.
Cao Huan was forced to resign from his position by Sima Yan. He later created the Jin rule in AD 265. Wei disappeared from history. The Jin military was led into battle for the Eastern Wu territory and succeeded in taking these lands. Sun Hao surrendered the Eastern Wu territory after long fierce battle, effectively ending the reign of the Three Chinese Dynasties. The internal conflicts in the Wu kingdom made the kingdom weak. The fall of this kingdom brought an end to the long period of war.
References
Besio, K. A. (2012). Three Kingdoms and Chinese Culture . Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Chinaeducenter. (2018). History of Three Kingdoms Period - China Education Center. Retrieved from https://www.chinaeducenter.com/en/whychina/threekingdoms.php
Travelchinaguide. (2018). China Three Kingdoms Period (220-280): Wei, Shu, Wu States. Retrieved from https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/three_kingdoms/
