Introduction
The United States has undergone tremendous transformation. This transformation has been made possible by key events that have taken place throughout the nation’s history. Race relations are among the elements of American history that have changed tremendously. A look at a piece penned by Governor James Vardaman sheds light on the changes that have occurred race relations. In this piece, Vardaman vehemently opposes the provision of education to the black community 1 . He argues that education encourages the members of this community to engage in crime and event cites what appears to be scholarly works which suggest that education is responsible for criminal activity among members of the black community. Vardaman proceeds to make it clear that he is opposed to granting members of the black community voting rights and calls for reinstatement of the institution of slavery 2 . The prejudice and racism that characterizes Vardaman’s piece reflects the state of the American nation in the 19 th century. In this paper, an exploration of key events that occurred between the Civil War and the First World War is offered. The paper offers particular attention to issues that concern race, gender and social classes.
Civil War period
Discrimination and violence against slaves
The Civil War significantly redefined various elements of American society. Race relations and slavery are among the issues that were reshaped by the Civil War. Before the war, tensions characterized the relations between whites and the black community. The war heightened these tensions. Previously, members of the black community were mostly used as slaves. As the war knocked, they were treated as contraband where they were confiscated as they tried to flee to Northern states where slavery had been abolished 3 . Discrimination and violence against black slaves became worse as slavery became a key issue in the Civil War. The labor provided by slaves was vital for the economy of Southern states. These states feared that the abolishment of slavery would cripple their economies and they committed all their effort to preserve the institution of slavery 4 .
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
State of the nation after the Civil War
Lincoln desired to unite the Union and to bring in Southern states where slavery was still alive. He achieved this vision through the War. The Civil War brought about unity for the nation. The United States essentially became a unified entity that was characterized by ideals such as liberty and democratic governance. The war resulted in a patriotic movement that millions of Americans became part of. Such aspects of American life as religion cemented bonds among Americans even further. Americans developed a great sense of nationalism and resilience. The abolishment of slavery further unified the nation. The modern American nation is founded on the ideals, principles and institutions that were established following the Civil War. An argument can therefore be made that the nation became united after the war.
Ken Burns on the Confederate flag
Ken Burns is a respected historian. On the question of the Confederate flag, he thinks that it is a representation of slavery and that it does not reflect the rights of the Southern states.
Successes and failures of the reconstruction
Following the Civil War, the United States embarked on a rebuilding campaign. These campaign yielded many successes and presented a number of failures. One of the successes of the reconstruction was the granting of more rights to members of the black community. These rights included owning property and legalized marriage. While the black community celebrated these rights, such groups as women did not enjoy greater freedom. In a paper that she authored, Elizabeth Warren complains about the failure to extend greater freedoms to women 5 . The fact that greater freedoms were not extended to women can be regarded as one of the failures of the reconstruction. Land and labor reform are other successes that resulted from the reconstruction. The reconstruction saw thousands of freed blacks own property that they were previously denied access to under slavery 6 . The strengthening of such institutions as churches and schools is the other success that the US enjoyed following the reconstruction. One of the greatest failures of reconstruction is that it failed to fully unite the nation. It led to the rise of radicals who were opposed to the abolishment of slavery 7 . These radicals launched attacks against members of the black community. Overall, the reconstruction delivered great gains for former slaves and women.
Changes to the indigenous landscape
The reconstruction period was marked with advancements in industrial production. Railroads were constructed and more Americans moved to the West of the country 8 . This region was inhabited by indigenous communities such as the American Indians. The indigenous landscape was altered significantly by the construction of railroads and the mass migration to the west. The government acquired land owned by the indigenous communities through treaties, purchase or war 9 . The government set up reservations which housed the indigenous communities. In these reservations, the Indians endured poverty and suffered frequent attacks 10 . The harsh treatment that Indian Americans were subjected to led to revolts and a call by their chief for equal and dignified treatment. In an impassioned speech, Chief Joseph urged white Americans to coexist peacefully with the indigenous communities. His sentiments are echoed by Fredrick Douglass who lamented about the treatment of Indian Americans in his piece The Composite Nation 11 .
Gilded age
Advancements of the gilded age
The period from 1870 to 1890 is referred to as the Gilded age 12 . This period was marked with tremendous economic expansion. The lands that were previously occupied by indigenous communities were used for industrial production and agriculture. This resulted in immense economic growth. The granting of citizenship to American Indians is another achievement that was recorded in this age 13 . It should be noted that only a handful of American Indians accepted citizenship since it was required that they give up their traditional practices and identities if they wished to be granted citizenship. Most Indians clung on to their indigenous identity.
Economic freedom and national landscape transformation
It has been stated above that the gilded age was marked by economic expansion. The transformation of the American economy significantly shaped the nation’s landscape. Such issues as social classes began to appear 14 . Industrialists who owned capital made up the high class. The workers who labored for long hours received low pay and were unable to afford decent housing constituted the low class 15 . The emergence of classes was linked to the concept of social Darwinism which holds that individuals who are able to adapt can survive in the economic climate. This concept was explored by William Sumner who argued that social Darwinism allows mankind to cope with dwindling natural reserves 16 . Sumner appears to endorse social classes. His views highlight the state of the American nation in the gilded age. The American landscape was characterized by a corrupt political elite that served the interests of industrialists 17 .
Racial and class disparity in the gilded age
Apart from economic expansion, the gilded age was marked by racial and class disparities. As noted above, social classes began to emerge with the poor laborers pitted against the wealthy industrialists. Class warfare also emerged with the poor laborers blaming their condition on the greed of industrialists. On the other hand, the industrialist argued that their wealth was the result of hard work and access to resources. The argument that they were naturally selected for success in industry was also used to defend the wealthy. The racial inequality was highlighted by Edward Bellamy. He pointed out the inequality that has resulted from the accumulation of wealth by the rich 18 . He called on all Americans to collaborate to end poverty. Racial disparity was also witnessed in this age. Members of the black community bore the brunt of economic inequality. Most languished in poverty as they lacked access to opportunities for economic empowerment 19 .
Experiences of immigrants challenging the nation
Migrant who moved into though Angel and Ellis Island challenged the American nation to rethink such issues as hard work. These individuals worked extremely hard for low wages 20 . Their commitment was an effort to enjoy the quality of life that they could not in their home countries. In an effort to understand the factors responsible for the mass immigration, the US government set out to investigate. It was learnt that the migrants moved to the US in the pursuit of better economic conditions and to enjoy the freedoms that the US granted its citizens 21 . The experiences of these immigrants allowed the American nation to recognize the importance of personal and economic freedoms.
Xenophobia
Xenophobia refers to the hate and fear that is directed at individuals who are from other countries. In the US, xenophobia was done through laws which made it difficult for foreigners to remain true to the practices and beliefs of their home countries. For example, there are laws that were enacted in Nebraska which required all instruction in schools to be carried out in English. This law was seen as a xenophobic move.
Imperialism
The US becoming an empire
In the 1880s, the US began to play a major role in international affairs. This role saw the United States take the form of an empire. The nation became an empire through the acquisition of such territories as Alaska and Hawaii 22 . The expansion in international trade also allowed the US to emerge as an empire. The efforts of missionaries who travelled across the world to spread Christianity also contributed to the emergence of the US as an empire 23 . In addition to Christianity, these missionaries also spread American values.
The language of imperialism
The language of imperialism can be regarded as the meaning of imperialism. This term has been offered different definitions. It can be regarded as the unwelcome interference in the affairs of other territories or nations. For example, the US took control of affairs in Philippines and Spain and refused to surrender control back to the citizens of these countries as they did not think that they were prepared to manage their own affairs 24 .
The need to expand borders
There are a number of factors that compelled the US to expand its borders through acquisition of new territories. Access to resources and strategic locations is one of these factors. The US acquired Alaska because of its strategic locations. The acquisition of Alaska would allow the US to set up coaling stations that would provide fuel for ships 25 . The growing nationalist sentiment is the other factor that necessitated border expansion. Americans became increasingly nationalistic and called for the government to be more assertive in its foreign policy. The annexation of such territories as Hawaii was a response to the nationalist sentiment.
US imperialism affecting indigenous landscape
American imperialism greatly affected the indigenous landscape of such territories as Guam, Hawaii, Philippines and Puerto Rico. One of the effects is that it introduced changes in how these territories were governed. For example, the US orchestrated the collapse of the Hawaiian kingdom which led to the absorption of Hawaii into the larger US nation 26 . In Cuba, the US installed a new government and demanded that changes be made to the country’s constitution. The other effect is that the indigenous groups were denied the right to direct their own affairs.
Criticism for imperialism
The US faced criticism for its imperialist actions. One of the major criticisms of imperialism is that it amounts to a violation of the sovereignty of other nations. By meddling in the affairs of such nations as Cuba and Philippines, the US essentially denied locals the right to dictate their matters. The other criticism of imperialism is that it usually leaves local populations far off than they were before the US intervened. The case of Puerto Rico is an example of this. The US invasion served the interests of the wealthy and left most Puerto Ricans languishing in poverty 27 . The human and economic costs of the wars that are caused by imperialism is the basis for yet another criticism of imperialism.
Progressive era
Accomplishments of the progressive movement
The progressive era ran from 1900 to 1916. Among the accomplishments that were achieved in this era was economic growth 28 . This growth was driven by a boost in industrial production and an increase in the size of the population Consumerism also emerged in this era with Americans forming a consumerist society 29 . The emergence of cities and greater economic freedom for women are the other accomplishments. In previous periods, women were denied access to economic opportunities. In the progressive era, more women entered the workforce 30 .
Limitations to the progressive platform
While it delivered great accomplishments, the progressive platform grappled with a number of limitations. One of these limitations was that this platform reinforced economic inequality. Thanks to the progressive policies, the rich amassed more wealth 31 . On the other hand, the poor continued to wallow in poverty and lacked access to basic facilities such as decent housing. It is important to note that the economic inequality was not a deliberate agenda of the progressive movement. It was simply a by-product of the economic expansion that the US underwent. The progressive movement was active in pushing for economic freedom and democracy which it believed would end the inequality 32 .
Race, gender and the progressive movement
Race and gender are two of the factors that played an important role in shaping the progressive movement. This movement called for greater freedoms for women. Thanks to the efforts of this movement, women finally found their way into the workplace 33 . They were represented in professions that were previously dominated by men. A faction of the progressive movement campaigned for birth control rights for women 34 . This campaign indicates that gender significantly influenced the progressive movement. Feminism was also an agenda that the progressive movement agitated for. The fact that women were granted the right to vote in the progressive era serves as additional evidence that the progressive movement was shaped by gender. Race also played an important role. Indian Americans became more vocal in their calls for recognition and equal treatment 35 . The black community also demanded equal treatment but they faced great opposition especially in the South. Whereas white women worked in factories, their black counterparts were forced to work in farms and as domestic servants.
Response of southerners to equality of black Americans
In the progressive era, more and more Americans began to recognize the equality of black Americans. However, southerners did not share the view that black Americans were equal to whites. Such Southerners as Governor James Vardaman opposed the notion of racial equality. In the piece that he penned, he repeatedly refers to black Americans as Negroes, a derogatory term. He also makes it clear that he is opposed to the education of black Americans. He argues further that the Anglo-Saxon race is superior 36 . He claims that members of the black community cannot exist alongside whites as equals. He even blames them for crime. Vardaman’s views can be taken to represent the response of Southerners to the equal treatment of black Americans.
Progressive era and women
The progressive era forced the United States to rethink its attitudes about women. Previously, women were regarded as custodians of the home. They were barred from entering the industrial or political space. It was also feared that the family would collapse if women were allowed to vote 37 . These attitudes changed as women gained the right to vote and entered the labor market. The attitudes about the rights of women to do with their bodies as they pleased also changed. In the progressive era, the nation began to recognize that women were free to vote, work and explore their sexualities. Basically, the progressive era challenged the nation to adopt friendlier attitudes.
Experiences of immigrant women
As noted above, the progressive era saw more women enter the workplace. Immigrant women shared in this accomplishment. Their experiences in factories were rather unique. These women enjoyed greater freedom 38 . In their home countries, they were subjected to patriarchal control. The immigrant women also found fulfillment in the factories since they were no longer confined to their homes.
WW1
Main causes of WW1
The First World War is one of the worst tragedies that the world has ever witnessed. Millions of people lost their lives. This war was sparked by a number of factors. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand is believed to have sparked the war 39 . The scramble for territories is also blamed for the war. Difference in ideology is also cited as among the causes of this war 40 .
WW1, global landscape and foreign policy
WW1 shaped the global landscape and redefined the foreign policy that the United States adopted. This war saw nations enter into military alliances. For example, Britain, Japan, Russia and France were collectively referred to as the Allies 41 . The war pitted them against an alliance of such nations as the Ottoman Empire and Germany. The US managed to resist the temptation of being drawn into the war. However, the war still saw the US emerge as the driving force of the global foreign policy. Thanks to this war, the US adopted a foreign policy in which it prepared itself for a possible involvement in the war 42 . The war also redefined how the US engaged with other nations. In 1915, 124 Americans died following the sinking of a British ship by a German submarine. The US responded through a note in which the president protested.
Impacts of WW1 on US
The war also had impacts on domestic affairs of the US. For example, the war played a role in the 1916 election in which Woodrow Wilson emerged victorious. His victory was attributed in part to his decision to remain uninvolved in the war 43 . The war also prompted the US to boost the capacity of its navy and army. This was done in preparation for a possible participation in the war. Industrial production was also boosted as the US set up facilities for producing the materials that would be needed in the war campaign.
Segregation of military forces
The US was eventually drawn into war and it committed millions of its men to fighting the German state. Segregation was a policy that had been in place for years well before the war. This policy was continued into the war. Despite eagerly signing up to defend their nation, most black Americans were assigned support roles 44 . Only few engaged in actual combat.
European and African theatres
While WW1 was mostly confined to Europe, it spilled over to Africa which served as the second theatre of the war. In Europe, Germany engaged its enemies such as Belgium in battle. Austria-Hungary was also involved in a war against Serbia 45 . Germany continued its campaign into France. In Africa, local groups rose up in opposition to colonial rule. The Allied group of nations also launched attacks against colonies that were ruled by Germany.
WW1 impacts on European colonial holdings in Africa
WWI presented impacts for the colonies in Africa that were ruled by European nations. The European nations drafted the locals in their respective colonies to fight on their sides. For example, Britain brought in troops from the African nations that it colonized. The other effect of the war is that ownership of some colonies changed hands. For example, since it lost the war, Germany was forced to give up its colonies to France and Britain.
Scapegoating of immigrants
Some of the immigrants whose mother countries were involved in the war were scapegoated. There was hostility against German immigrants since Germany was blamed for the war 46 .
Wartime advantages
Most of the impacts of the war were negative. However, the war did present some advantages. For example, sentiments of patriotism emerged as Americans supported their government 47 . The other benefit of the war is that it led to an economic boom as the nation engaged in massive industrial production to create the tools that would be needed for American participation in the war. Farming was also modernized and the nation adopted methods for preparing meals that were more efficient 48 . Workers were the main gainers from the war. Thanks to the war, minimum wage was established and the government capped the work day at eight hours 49 . There was also an overall increase in the wages that workers were offered.
Participation of women in the war
While women did not engage in actual combat, they played a number of different roles. Some of the roles that they performed included selling war bonds and organizing campaigns in which they urged men to enlist 50 . They also formed a significant portion of the workers who worked in factories where war implements were produced. Thousands of women served as clerks and nurses.
Fourteen points and support for imperialism
Fourteen points refers to a set of guidelines for the vision that President Wilson had for the post-war world. Among other things, Wilson expressed his desire for open diplomacy, free trade and the commitment by all nations to preserve peace 51 . An argument can be made that the Fourteen points are part of American imperialism. This argument would be incorrect. The contents of the Fourteen points do not necessarily serve American interest. If anything, they promote the interests of all actors in the global stage. Therefore, the Fourteen points are not in any way an expression of support for imperialism.
How language influences war
Language can have far-reaching impacts on war. The case of Wilson’s note in which he protested the death of Americans following the sinking of the British ship underscores the power of language. The note forced the then secretary of state to resign. That the strong wording of the note could force a resignation highlights the power of language.
Recurring themes
There are a number of recurring themes in The Voices of Freedom. The petition by the black residents of Nashville and the petition by the freedmen to Andrew Jackson are two of the pieces with recurring themes. In the first piece, the black residents of Nashville call for the conditions of members of the black community to be improved 52 . The key themes in this petition are freedom and slavery. The petitioners boldly claim that petition is a natural right that no man should ever take away. They also highlight the racial abuses that they have suffered for over 200 years 53 . The petitioners also argue that all men are equal and belong to one large human family. The petition ends with a call for African Americans to be granted citizenship and to be allowed access to justice. Similar themes are echoed in the second petition addressed to Andrew Jackson. In this petition, the authors complain about the reversal of a policy that allowed black Americans to own land 54 . The authors also shed light on the poverty that members of the black community faced. In both petitions, the themes of slavery and freedom are prominent. From the two petitions above, it is clear that race and class played crucial roles in reinforcing slavery and making it difficult for members of the black community to gain freedom. Additionally, gender must have played a role since all members of this community were subjected to slavery.
Economic inequality is the other theme that recurs. These themes are addressed by Fredrick Douglass and Andrew Carnegie. In his work titled The Gospel of Wealth, Carnegie sheds light on economic inequality. He argues that the rich seems obsessed with accumulating wealth at the expense of the poor 55 . He also laments about the emergence of social classes. He calls on the wealthy to use their possessions for the benefit of the public. On the other hand, Douglas laments about the plight of the poor members of the black community who have been failed by their government 56 . He also makes the case for racial equality by sharing his experiences with black and Asian people who served him warmly when he visited their homes. The issue of economic inequality is a complex one that is shaped by such factors as race, gender and class. Whites, the wealthy and men seem to have been favored while minority racial groups such as the black community, women and those who belong to the low class are disenfranchised.
Conclusion
The discussion above has focused on the changes that the American society has undergone. The discussion has shed light on key events that took place in different eras. One of the issues that are prominent in the discussion is the use of violence. Throughout American history, violence has featured. It appears that violence was necessary for the US to emerge from the Civil War. The United States has been defined by prejudices and biases that were so strong that they could not be overcome by such tools as dialogue. Consider the efforts by the black community to end slavery. It is unlikely that this community would have been granted freedom without violence. This case points to the fact that the American landscape has been shaped to a large extent by violence.
Bibliography
Bellamy, Edward “Looking Backward”. 1888.
Carnegie, Andrew, “The Gospel of Wealth ”. 1889.
Douglass, Fredrick, “The Composite Nation”. 1869.
Foner, Eric, Give me Liberty. An American History. Third Edition. New York: W.W. Norton, 2011.
Petition of Black Residents of Nashville. 1865
Petition of Committee on Behalf of Freedmen to Andrew Jackson. 1865.
Stanton, Elizabeth C., “Home Life”. 1875.
Vardaman, James K “ A Governor Bitterly Opposes Negro Education ”. 1904.
William, Sumner G., “Social Darwinism”. 1880.
