The colonization of America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries brought about an education system that adopted a theistic world view. Most of the schools in America were founded by Churches that taught religion and explained knowledge through a theological point of view. With time, American schools began accepting the changing world view that was moving towards a scientific approach. The education perspectives rooted in religion changed to accommodate scientific perspectives, which then evolved into the current philosophical perspectives found in education today. Additionally, the theories of learning were also influenced by Christianity. Education was founded to ensure that the colonies maintained their protestant beliefs. One key theory in education was the theory of instrumentalism taught by John Dewey. It was from this theory that early educationists realized the need for science in understanding religion. This prompted the development of scientific theories of education in America. The behaviorist and cognitive theories are other key theories as they paved the way for more scientific theories to understand teaching and learning. Understanding and synthesizing the common historical perspectives and key theories of teaching and learning in America will facilitate the viewing of the American education system as a single entity to showcase its adaptability to the needs of the changing world.
Common Historical Perspectives of Teaching and Learning in America
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, The American education system adopted a theistic world view during colonization to enable educators to teach their students who were expected to influence society (Lawrence, 2007). Churches founded most of the colleges in America before the Civil War. During this era, the historical perspective was that teaching was meant to instill students with the right skills and attitudes from the Christian doctrine. Learners, on the other hand, were expected to use the education instilled in them to educate and influence society (Lawrence, 2007). They were expected to also serve as ministers in the church. Early perspectives on teaching and learning focused on learners being literate in the Christian doctrine. Knowledge in the Bible and the ability to engage in intellectual discussions of the day was also valued during this era (Lawrence, 2007). Teaching and learning during this era were tailored to meet theological interpretations; thus, intellectualism from the seventeenth century to the half of the nineteenth century resided in theological schools.
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However, as the centuries progressed, the academic culture evolved to adopt a philosophical approach. Learning and teaching took up a deist approach where intellectuals believed that God no longer influenced the universe after He created it (Lawrence, 2007). This then led to the secularization of education in America. Deists believed in The Book of Nature, which explained that humans had the right to search for their truth. This influenced teaching and learning in colleges, and other higher learning institutions adapted an approach to pluralism (Lawrence, 2007). They revised their curriculum only to have religious and theological discussions in philosophy and religion courses. Other factors that influenced education stemmed from the perspectives of professionalization of education and the advances in technology (Lawrence, 2007). These resulted in accommodating pluralism in education and the dismissal of Christian perspectives in education as scholars sought to find their truth.
Education began to accommodate to contemporary culture between the late 19 th century and the mid-20 th century. More students from various backgrounds began attending college, thus influencing what was taught (Lawrence, 2007). Educators believed that learning and teaching should be adaptable to the prevailing changes in the new world. This resulted in a pronounced and apparent shift in theology and learning. The changes were seen when Christian colleges began offering liberal arts curriculum, colleges and universities became centers for scientific research, and Christian seminaries began focusing solely on theology (Lawrence, 2007). With time, perspectives changed to influence Christian and public institutions to disassociate with denominational roots, thus watering down their Christian themes to allow science to address the needs of the civilization. Through subtle accommodations, the shift from Christian perspectives to scientific perspectives had occurred (Lawrence, 2007). Christian values were relegated to extracurricular status or eliminated in favor of the dualistic approach to education.
Favoring a dualistic approach in education led to bringing the age of Enlightenment in education. Here modernism and postmodernism influenced education as scholars and educators believed that the ultimate source of knowledge and truth could be found in human reason and science (Lawrence, 2007). This led to people questioning ideals of Enlightenment as they realized science could not create a utopia and reality that could be passed on. Postmodernism emerged in education as a response to the failed perspectives of modernism, where it encouraged scholars and educators to reject the reality of absolute truths (Lawrence, 2007). This leads to pragmatism and relativism, where truth is dependent on an individual's moral values at the time and place where it was considered (Lawrence, 2007). This view still influences teaching and learning by encouraging scientific investigation and fostering a belief in relative truths.
Historically Key Theories of Teaching and Learning in America
Education has always been awash with novel ideas on teaching and learning that try to keep up with the changing perspectives in teaching. Historically, there were three key theories used in teaching and learning in America. The theory of instrumentalism, behavioral theory, and cognitive theory. Understanding the fundamental theories help in appreciating and understanding the roots of one's existing practices and ideas (Setran, 2014). Schools in America rose from colonies mainly for religious reasons. The communities wanted to maintain their tenets to Protestantism by maintaining their access to the word of God (Labaree, 2012). This would be achieved through reading the bible, thus the need for people to be literate. The theory of instrumentalism focused on learning by acknowledging the importance of science and religion in erudition, while behavioral theory focused on the change in behavior that resulted in learning. The cognitive theory focused on understanding cognitive processes to facilitate learning.
In the mid-18 th century, Cotton Mather influenced the type of education taught to the colonies. Despite being a clergyman, Mather supported scientific theories like Newtonian theories linked to the six days of creation (Hudson, 2008). He acknowledges the need for philosophy in religion, thus enabling the understanding of the relationship between science and religion. This view thus influenced the theory of instrumentalism, which was proposed by Dewey in the early 20 th century (United States; History & background, n.d). This theory looked at sought to introduce ethics in teaching and learning. Early forms of education were filled with some mythic sense of religion. Dewey focused on informing people of the hidden information that could be unearthed through science. He encouraged people to believe in repeated observation of verifiable events (United States; History & background, n.d). The theory explains that unyielding belief in a higher power only stifles inquiry and free expression, thus played a key role in accepting the contribution of science in education.
The second key theory of teaching and learning in historical American society was the behaviorist theory. Emerging in the early 20 th century, the theory of learning was founded on the idea that a learner is like a blank slate waiting to be written upon. As such, educators need to understand that knowledge is independent (Zhou & Brown, 2017). In behaviorism, learning is believed to occur once a change in behavior is perceived. Educators must provide learners with information to be learned to ensure they can make connections and associations that eventually change behavior. Teaching involves the repetition of actions, incentives, and verbal reinforcement for behavior to change (Zhou & Brown, 2017). This theory was beneficial as it helped educators learn the importance of repetition and the use of incentives in learning. The theory was relevant because education in the early 20 th century had begun accommodating contemporary culture, thus the need to understand behavior change as a form of learning.
The third key historical theory in America was the cognitive learning theory, which was founded in the mid-20 th century. The theory sought to understand how people think. Educators need to understand the mental processes involved in learning to be able to impart students with knowledge (Zhou & Brown, 2017). The theory brings to light the impact of external and internal forces in affecting learning. In this theory, internal thoughts and external forces impact the cognitive process. The learner is seen as a processor who must absorb then process information through their cognitive operations and store it in the form of knowledge in their memory (Zhou & Brown, 2017). This theory was essential as it helped both learners and educators to understand what influences the learning process and also helped them understand their cognitive processes. The theory was relevant because education in the mid-20 th century had begun becoming adaptable to the prevailing changes in the new world, thus fostering the accommodation of science in learning.
Synthesis of Common Perspectives and Key Theories of Teaching and Learning in America
An evident pattern arises by understanding the common historical perspectives and the key theories of teaching and learning in America. The pattern shows how American education begun with a concentration on Christianity and later develops and takes a more scientific approach (Labaree, 2012). Early education perspectives saw God as the creator; thus, all knowledge should be understood through a theological worldview. Additionally, early American educationists developed education in the colonies to ensure people maintained their protestant beliefs (Labaree, 2012). As such, from the early education perspectives to the early erudition processes, education was heavily influenced by religion.
However, with time, the methods and content of education began to change. This is evident with the shift from Christian or theological worldview to the adoption of scientific approaches to education (Lawrence, 2007). Moreover, early educationists like Cotton Mather, who wrote of The Book of Nature, begun showcasing the importance of science to religion and, consequently, education (Hudson, 2008). Therefore, this shows that American education was intent on developing the country and its people. Americans were ready to adapt to the changing world views and change their education to meet the growing demands for science and philosophy in their world.
When the development of these perspectives and theories are considered as a single entity, it becomes that the American history of teaching and learning was quite flexible. The system was adaptable, as evidenced by both the perspectives and theories that adapt to scientific and philosophical approaches. Although it was rooted in religion and theological world views, the education system considered its civilians to ensure that they were not only well-versed in reading, writing, and their religious beliefs but also various vocational professions. The American's willingness to adapt their education system to the changing world also shows that the education system considers the needs of its people and society. As such, the American education system is not fixed on specific ideals but rather changes depending on the prevailing world issues. It, therefore, offers f lexible curriculums that facilitate the personal growth of learners and meets the individual students' needs to develop their talents and interests.
References
Hudson, J. D. (2008). Cotton Mather's relationship to science. Georgia State University , https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=english_theses
Labaree, D., F. (2012). Theories of the historical development of American schooling. Stanford University , https://web.stanford.edu/~dlabaree/publication2013/Schooling_in_the_US-_Historical_Analyses.pdf
Lawrence, T. A. (2007). Philosophy, religion, and education American style: A literature review. Journal of Research on Christian Education , 16(2), 243-267.
Setran, D. (2014). Guest Editorial "History Matters": reflections on studying the history of Christian education. Christian Education Journal , 11(2), 294-299.
United States; History & background. (n.d). State University, https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1627/United-States-HISTORY-BACKGROUND.html
Zhou, M., & Brown, D. (2017). Educational learning theories. Galileo University , https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=education-textbooks
