A Select Issue in Bibliology: Christianity and Culture

The word culture is used to describe knowledge, beliefs, customs, values, ideas, and skills available in a society, and by which the society can be compared to or differentiated from others. 1 Culture can be equated to a tool through which people perceive the multiple facets of the world. While Christianity is not classified as a culture, the Christian faith is often expressed with the aid of various cultural media. Throughout the history and development of churches, there has been significant interaction between culture and the Christian faith. A Christian is an individual who accepts to adhere to the Christian doctrines and be a follower of Jesus Christ. However, due to the existence of multiple Christian denominations, it is difficult to pinpoint the constitutions of an authentic Christian tradition. As a result, cultural freedom and cultural identity have contributed to the development of unique Christian practices throughout the history of the church, as well as in different regions of the world. 2

Furthermore, the relationship between the Christian faith and culture has become of greater concern, particularly due to the missionary movements to spread the Christian faith throughout the world. The relationship between culture and Christianity, through the use of cultural mediums to spread the faith as well as the development of conflict due to divergence in practice and beliefs, is inevitable and thus necessitating the need for the development of an enduring coexistence and mutual reinforcement between Christianity and culture.

Interaction between Christianity and Culture in the History of Christianity

Christianity relies on cultural media for effective expression and communication. Any culture has the potential of being a medium for the expression and communication of the Christian faith. 3 Although Christian started within the Jewish culture, its original cultural environment failed to sustain the Christian faith due to the fear of Christianity being a threat to the Jewish culture. Subsequently, Christianity managed to break off from Judaism and the Jewish culture to become one of the most diverse religions in the world. During the development and spread of Christianity, religion was influenced by multiple cultures, notably the Greek philosophy and the Roman empire. 

The development of Christian denominations is partly as a result of cultural disagreement as the religion spread to new regions. The first most significant schism in Christianity occurred in the eastern part of the Roman empire when inhabitants of that religion protested against being subjected to the cultural, political, and theological domination of leaders from the western part of the Roman empire. 4 The Orthodox churches that emerged during those periods grew independently, maintaining their cultural and liturgical identity. 5 The Catholic church was affected heavily by Roman culture. Therefore, as the church spread through Europe, the Roman culture was forcefully imposed on the European Christians. However, during the Reformation, the pope’s power was challenged, with many European countries developing churches that identify with their culture. 6 Churches in North America, which were started by immigrants from Europe, were also unique due to the different cultural influences. The spread of Christianity to the other regions of the world, particularly Africa, Asia, and other Oceanic islands, were heavily affected by Western culture.

The multiple denominations in the Christian religion depict the culture upon which it was developed. Every church is culturally bound in some way. Although there is no Christian culture, the introduction of Christianity into a community will affect the culture of such a community 7 . The impact of the church on culture and the subsequent conflict has been evident in regions such as Europe and North America. Regions, particularly Africa and Asia, had western culture imposed on them under the disguise of being the Christian doctrines. 8 Resultantly, there is a significant difference in practices among these churches due to the differences in their traditional values. In the twentieth century, the Ecumenical Movement was started to contribute to the correction of missionary errors. In addition to the worldwide theological unity, the dialogue between churches strived to address issues pertaining to people’s identity and culture.

Christianity and Culture in the Modern Missionary Movements

The relationship between the Christian faith and culture has attracted great attention. The modern mission movements to spread the Christian faith around the world have helped in bringing the issue of the interaction and conflict between Christianity and culture to the entire church. 9 Unlike in previous missionary practices, where churches and the Christian faith was introduced to new believers with the cultural influenced adopted from its place of origin and development, the appropriation of the Gospel by a wide variety of individuals has stressed the conviction that every person has the right to hear, embrace, and live out the Christian faith in his or her own cultural idiom. 10 Resultantly, the new perception of how to be a Christian has necessitated the need to ensure that a proper relationship exists between faith and culture. The historical association of Christianity with Western Culture has strongly been disputed in recent times. As a result, the Christian faith has lost and continues to lose authority in things that have been their core identity for more than fifteen hundred years.

In the past, the missionary’s perception of the relationship between a given culture and Christianity was majorly defined with conversion to Christianity. Conversion to Christianity implied discontinuity from the cultural practices of a given community. A new believer was expected to forgo practices and beliefs associated with his or her local culture. 11 To effectively propagate the adoption of the Christian culture and the abandonment of the local cultural practices, cultures other than the western culture, which was presented as the Christian culture, was dismissed as “pagan” and “heathen”. 12 This missionary tactic was ineffective as the spread of Christianity depends on the cultural medium of communication and expression. Resultantly, the differences in beliefs and practices result in the development of the conflict, and thus interfering with the missionary activities.

For example, in the early missionary activities in Africa, a misconception error in the form of the superiority complex of missionaries, which resulted in their false idea of Africans being lesser human, without the knowledge of God or any spiritual reality, including the existence of a devil. 13 In addition, the missionary assumed that Africans lacked a sense of morality. Such misconceptions and assumptions led to the misrepresentation of most African practices as the work of the devil. Therefore, instead of striving to understand the African culture, the missionary rebuked these practices and devised arguments on why these misconstrued African practices ought to be obliterated. 

In addition, the error of ignorance was manifested by the missionaries through their lack of wisdom that made them ignore the fact that most of the practices that were part and parcel of the African values and practices form a preparatory platform for the success of Christian teaching and practice in Africa. The knowledge about the African culture could have helped the missionary to tailor the Gospel in a manner that is acceptable by the African community. Early missionaries assumed that the conversion to Christianity required a radical discontinuity between one culture and the Christian culture, with the argument that a new Christian convert should become a totally different person from his or her original cultural identity. 14 On the other hand, some argue in support of the continuity with positive elements of a given culture encountered by Christianity- one can identify with his or her cultural roots and still become a true Christian without any observable clash.

The relationship between Christianity and other cultures has changed significantly as compared to the early missionary practices. Cultures have become an important tool of transition for the introduction and strengthening of Christianity. Therefore, Christianity in the areas of different cultural practices incorporates elements from those cultures. If a missionary works in a culture other than his own is to be effective, he must explore and understand the culture of individuals he wishes to evangelize. Elements such as the language, art, music, dance, and ritual, among other aspects of that culture, will help him to identify with the community of those he wishes to introduce to Jesus Christ. 15 Moreover, upon understanding the cultural practices of that community, a missionary is expected to translate his understanding of Christianity into the cultural terms that can be easily understood by the potential converts. A missionary must be willing to be changed. Saint Paul notes the need to understand other cultures to effectively evangelize. To the Corinthians, he said: 

“For though I am free from all men, I have made myself a slave to all, that I might with more. To the Jews, I became a Jew, in order win Jews; to those under the law, I became as one under the law-though not being myself under the law- that I might win those under the law. To those outside the law, I became one outside the law-not being without the law toward God, but under the law of Christ-that I might win those outside the law. To the weak, I became weak, that I might win the weak...” 16

A strong coexistence and mutual reinforcement of other cultures along with Christianity, with some selectivity, facilitates better acceptance of Christianity among the prospective converts. 17 The selective acceptance of positive practices from other cultures while discrediting negative practices results in the development of two separate but equally essential domains during missionary activities. Contrary to St. Paul’s tactics, most modern missionary enterprises did not strive to understand the culture of the people they intended to convert. Resultantly, these new converts were taught to adopt the cultural norms of foreign missionaries. The conversion to Christianity was marked by behavioral norms, particularly the abandonment of traditional cultural practices and adopting western culture. The converts were forced to live a life of double standard. On one end, the new converts accepted the norms introduced to them by the missionaries who dismissed every cultural practice. On the other end, the converts could not ignore their cultural identity. The new converts could not substitute their belonging to a specific denomination for their cultural and religious heritage. However, in the case of coexistence between Christianity and other cultures, converts can associates themselves with both heritage and still be considered a follower of Jesus Christ.

Conflict Between Christianity and other Religious Cultures

Religious bigotry and spiritual arrogance are some of the main causes of conflict between the Christian region and other cultures. 18 The notion by evangelists that Christianity upholds the truth and other cultural heritage have a lesser form of God’s revelation that causes a wide rift between the Christian faith and other cultures. The conflict between Christianity and other cultures can also manifest as a result of using religion to propagate non-religious agenda. During the Dark Ages and the Medieval Period, Christian leaders took advantage of the tolerance of Christianity in the Roman culture and began the persecution of people who criticized the church. 19 The actions by church leaders resulted in an increased level of resentment that resulted in a schism in Christianity. During the pre-colonial period, Christianity was used as a tool for aiding the colonization of African countries. As a result, the tactics used by the early missionaries misrepresented the African culture as demonic for the wrong reasons. 

Christianity, as presented by some evangelist disapproved practices that are not core to the requirements of a Christian. In Africa, European missionaries labeled African traditional rituals as heathen, animistic, and idol worships. The conflict between Christianity and the indigenous African culture was mainly as a result of the missionary attitude toward the indigenous cultural practices and people. 20 Social customs, such as naming ceremonies and second burials, among many others, were the identity of society that did not conflict with Christian beliefs, and yet the new converts were prevented from participating in such practices. The denial of participating in these cultural activities meant the exclusion of these converts from political, cultural, religious, and social activities in the society. Practices such as polygamous marriage, which is in consonance with the Old Testament Customs and did not conflict with Christian values and practices, were dismissed and thus resulting in conflicts. 21

Cultural Challenges to the Christian Faith

In principle, the analysis of the challenges posed to Christianity by culture will facilitate a more efficacious evangelization. However, since modern western culture is majorly informed by the faith-inspired anthropology, the modern culture cannot be considered as a neutral presupposition upon which Christianity is based. The Western culture, in terms of its anthropological and ethical content and transmission, has been build, to a significant degree, on the biblical faith. 22 Therefore, the presentation of the “Christian culture” to other cultures of the world can be considered as the spread of Western culture instead of the Christian faith. Modern culture also poses a challenge to Christianity. The modern culture, with elevated and sophisticated anthropological insight and strength, in many instances, is a culture without faith. The modern western culture is a culture that is willing to disconnect itself from the very faith that led to its development. Resultantly, modern culture is a weak culture that has contributed to many individuals influenced by the culture to lose faith. 23 In addition, modern culture has also contributed to individualism and ingratitude as people attempt to live in isolation. The weaknesses in the modern culture necessitate the need to broaden the scope of human rationality to include the interactional between people and the interaction between people and God.

Inculturation

Owing to the significant difference between the “Christian culture” and other cultures around the world, and the need for worldwide evangelization, there is a need to adopt inculturation in whenever Christianity interacts with other cultures. 24 Inculturation acknowledges that Christianity was influenced by missionaries’ culture. It, therefore, allows for a mutual dialogue to determines how the two cultures can coexist. Other terms, such as adaptation and accommodation, have been used to describe the interaction between Christianity and other cultures. During the African pre-colonial periods, missionaries were attempting to find ways to convey the Gospel in a manner that would be appealing to the customs and practices of the native people. Missionaries were attempting to fit the Christian rituals and spiritual activities into the native culture. Despite the attempt of missionaries to understand the cultural practice of the natives, the term “accommodation and adaptation” are frowned upon as they tend to portray western superiority and insult other cultures. When using accommodation and adaptation, one discredits the indigenous culture by suggesting that no function needs to be changed in Christianity. 25 It suggests that the relationship is one-sided without the recognition that the Christian religion was brought to the indigenous with the missionaries’ culture embedded in it.

Inculturation, in this context, is the process in which the faith embodied in one culture encounters another culture that becomes embodied in it. 26 It can be used to describe a dialogue between the Christian faith and other cultures. It is the process in which the Gospel is rooted in a given culture, with the latter being transformed through its introduction to Christianity. Inculturation results in the enrichment of both the Christian religion and the affected culture. From a theological perspective, a church is inserted into a particular culture, and the church becomes part of the culture as it is considered inculturated. Communication continues between the introduced church and the indigenous cultures to ensure that the contact developed remains intact.

The church not only acts on the cultural traits that it was built upon but also acts on the culture that it was transmitted to. Culture also affects church activities, and, as a result, forming an ongoing relationship with the culture that is encompassed in its surrounding environs. The Christian teachings are, therefore, effectively woven into the local cultural practices, and, in return, the Christian practices are affected by the local culture. Inculturation describes a mutual relationship between the evangelized and the evangelizer. It recognizes the dispute arising as a result of a difference in the religious traditions and thus advocating for open and respectful dialogue. 27 As mentioned earlier, the Gospel can only be expressed and communicated in a cultural context. Therefore, when missionaries provide the Gospel in their cultural context, the level of acceptance is relatively lower. However, as time progresses, the culture of the community can be adopted, and thus facilitating greater acceptance.

The first step towards inculturation is through the dialogue of histories. This type of dialogue involves the analysis of previous relations between the Christian religion and the indigenous culture. 28 The purpose of such a dialogue is to determine the stance and level of respect each conflicting cultures have for each other. The analysis of cultural history also helps in improving the understanding of cultural values and practices. Better conceptualization of a community’s culture facilitates better delivery of the Gospel through the adoption of various practices while avoiding others that might cause conflicts.

Inter-religious dialogue, in the form of a dialogue of theologies, can help in the understanding of the religious heritage within a given culture and how it can be affected by the Christian faith. Such dialogue aids in the removal of any inter-religious nescience and misunderstanding, and thus, fostering respect and tolerance amongst the conflicting parties. 29 Also, understanding the spirituality of a given individual can also help in the understanding of the fears, hopes, and desires of a given group of people can help in the process of devising a truth-claim to counter the cultural tradition and advocate for the adoption of Christianity in a more respectable and tactful manner. Furthermore, when the missionaries understand the reasons behind various cultural practices, they may be more willing to change and adopt them.

Language is one of the primary cultural elements that are relevant to the Christian faith. Throughout the development of Christianity and the churches, the bible has been written in many different languages to facilitate a better understanding of the scripture. 30 Whenever Christianity meets with another culture, language difference becomes a barrier that prevents effective communication. Instead of teaching a new language to new language to the prospective converts as a way of facilitating better understanding, the bible, along with other elements of Christianity, such as songs, are often translated into the local language. Other cultural aspects, such as dances, have also been incorporated in Christianity to facilitate acceptance among the indigenous population.

Inculturation has led to the development of new independent churches around the world. Following the first schism in Christianity, which saw the emergence of orthodox churches that branched out of the Catholic churches, subsequent churches have emerged as Christianity continues to spread around the world. These churches adhere to the primary beliefs and practices that relate to Christian identity. However, in addition, to the Christian norms and practices, cultural values and practices, such as polygamy, which do not conflict with any of the primary Christian ideology have also been incorporated into these churches. Multiple independent churches in many countries around the world have been developed to promote Christianity that does not necessarily adhere to Western culture. Therefore, these churches have Christianity and local culture coexisting, and thus promoting greater acceptance, particularly among individuals who are not enthusiastic about other cultural practices that are associated with evangelist’s culture rather than the Christian faith.

Conclusion

The interaction between Christianity and other cultures can be traced back to the start of the Christian religion and the development of churches. A culture is a tool used by the community to perceive the numerous aspects of the world. Cultural freedom and cultural identity have contributed to the development of numerous and unique Christian practices whenever Christianity interacts with other cultures. Christianity’s over-reliance on cultural media for effective expression and communication has contributed to the interdependence between Christianity and culture. Although Christianity started within the Jewish culture, it was never sustained to the conflict between the Jewish culture and Christianity. The changes in traditional Christian practices changed significantly due to the influence of the Roman and other European cultures. The cultural disagreement contributed to the schism in Christianity.

In the modern missionary movement, the interaction between Christianity and culture contributes towards successful evangelism. Besides, the modern missionary role of spreading Christianity all over the world has contributed to the greater focus that has been put on the relationship between Christianity and culture. Unlike in the past, where conversion into Christianity meant the discontinuity from cultural practices, modern evangelism attempts to promote selective coexistence and mutual reinforcement of culture and Christianity. A Christian can now identify with his or her root and still be considered a true Christian. 

As outlined by St. Paul, a missionary should be will to be changed and learn the culture and ways of different people, if he or she is to convince them to convert into Christianity. Failure to respect and consider cultural values and practices during a missionary activity might result in the development of conflicts. The primary cause of conflict is religious bigotry, spiritual arrogances, and the use of religion for other non-religious reasons. The disapproval of cultural practices that do not conflict with Christian beliefs as a result of the negative attitude towards other cultures by missionaries contributed to the limitation witnessed during evangelism. 

Although the influence of Christianity on modern culture also poses a significant challenge, the inculturation of the “Christian culture” with other cultures contributes to the coexistence of the two cultures within a church setting. The impact of culture on Christianity in recent times can be witnessed through the translation of bibles into many languages, as well as the emergence of many independent churches. The relationship between culture and Christianity, through the use of cultural mediums to spread the faith as well as the development of conflict due to divergence in practice and beliefs, is inevitable and thus necessitating the need for the development of an enduring coexistence and mutual reinforcement between Christianity and culture.

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