Aggression is a term that is used every day to describe the behaviors of others or even ourselves. People are said to be aggressive if they hit or yell at each other, if they insult others, if they are overly competitive, or even when they bang their fists on tables in frustration. However, some harmful behavior, such as sports injuries during a rough match, may not be viewed as aggressive. Because aggression is a term that is difficult to define, doctors, psychologists, judges, and politicians, among others, have put in efforts trying to determine behaviors that should and should not be termed as aggressive. However, social psychologists view aggression as behaviors that are intended to cause harm to another person who does not want to get harmed. The perception of aggression is subjective, and so what may seem aggressive to one person may not appear so to another depending on their opinion. Causing harm intentionally is, however, thought to be worse than unintentional damage even if the consequences are the same ( Gillions, Cheang, & Duarte, 2019) . This paper, therefore, examines aggression from a broader perspective with a focus on the factors that cause aggression.
Types of Aggression
At one point in life, a person experiences or showcases some form of aggression either directed towards them or another person. One can also exhibit aggressive behavior without intending to. There are different types of aggression, and they all impact people's lives differently. These include:
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Impulsive/ Emotional Aggression
This type of aggression occurs with a small level of intent or forethought. It is primarily determined by emotional impulses that may be out of one's control. Emotional aggression can result from extreme adverse emotions that a person experiences at the moment. When a person is feeling ill, when they get poor results from an exam, or when they are frustrated and angry, they are likely to have unpleasant feelings and thoughts, and this may lead to aggressive behavior ( Gillions, Cheang, & Duarte, 2019) . For example, when one feels angry, they are likely to bump their fists on the table or the wall. They are even likely to yell at others and hit them. A jealous boyfriend may impulsively hit another man assumed to be eyeing his girlfriend.
Instrumental/Cognitive Aggression
Instrumental aggression is intentional or planned acts that cause harm to another person. Instrumental aggression is less m and more cognitive and can be calculating and cold. This type of aggression is specifically intended to hurt someone else in order to gain something such as political power, monetary reward, or attention. If the aggressive person thought that there was an alternative way to get what they desire, then aggression would probably not occur (Mitrofan et al., 2014 ) . For example, a kid in school may become a bully in order to be recognized as the stronger person in the class and gain respect, or a terrorist group may lynch a citizen and broadcast such acts to show their retaliation against some countries. It sometimes becomes difficult to distinguish between emotional and instrumental aggression, but in the legal system, instrumental aggression has more severe sentencing than emotional aggression.
Forms of Aggression
Social psychologists assert that aggression does not have to be only physical but verbal as well. Therefore, hurling insults at someone else is just as aggressive as hitting someone. Physical aggression involves physical harm to others. Acts such as punching, slapping, head-butting, shooting, rape, or murder all count as physical aggression. Non-physical aggression does not involve any physical harm (Mitrofan et al., 2014 ) . This includes verbal aggression (screaming, cursing, yelling, and insulting) and social or relational aggression, which involves intentionally causing harm to another person's social relationships. Examples of relational aggression include gossip, defamation, or silent treatments. Nonverbal aggression can also be in the form of racial, homophobic, and sexual jokes or epithets, but designed to hurt another person.
Although the outcomes of physical aggression are more visible and apparent, non-physical aggression can be more hurtful to victims. Simmons et al. (2019) found that children who were bullied in school or at home exhibited more loneliness, depression, anxiety, and lower self-esteem than other children. According to Simmons et al. (2019), in Britain, 21% of teenagers reported feeling hurt and bullied by someone spreading gossip and rumors about them. Female students who experienced non-physical aggression are more likely to engage in risky behaviors such as drug abuse, smoking, and even suicide attempts. Adolescents reported that social aggression made them feel angrier and sadder than physical aggression.
Causes of Aggression
Biological Causes
A section of the brain called the amygdala controls aggression. This part of the brain is responsible for regulating perceptions and reactions to fear and aggression. The amygdala has links with other parts of the body system that relate to fear, such as the facial responses, the sympathetic nervous system, processing of smell, and the release of neurotransmitters related to aggression and fear (Hsieh & Chen, 2017). The amygdala becomes activated when a person experiences both positive and negative outcomes. When a person senses danger or experiences negative emotions, their biological system responds and activates responses. Therefore, when someone is feeling frustrated or angry, or bullied, they may tend to aggress as a natural function to protect themselves. Hormones also play a significant role in aggressive behaviors. In this regard, the most common hormone responsible for aggression for both humans and animals is testosterone. Research shows that men with higher testosterone levels tend to be more aggressive than those with lower levels (Hsieh & Chen, 2017). This testosterone gives men a desire to be in control and so to achieve this, they sometimes use aggression.
Social Causes of Aggression
The primary cause of social aggression is provocation. When someone receives some form of physical assault, criticism, sarcasm, or insults, they consider them unfair, and they may tend to retaliate or reciprocate such actions with even more aggression. This reciprocation is stronger when someone is aware that the other person was intentionally trying to hurt them ( Gillions, Cheang, & Duarte, 2019) . For example, when a person is hit, they may reciprocate by hitting the person even harder. Different forms of provocation produce different types of aggression. For instance, insulting someone may cause them to hit another and vice versa.
Situational Causes of Aggression
Different situations or contexts may also cause aggression. Two primary situation factors have been found to escalate the rate of aggression. These factors are alcohol and temperature. Alcohol consumption can increase aggression, especially in individuals who typically have low aggression levels. Alcohol reduces a person's capacity to process information and react to different situations. People who consume alcohol have been found to exhibit more aggressive behavior and respond more aggressively to provocations than people who do not drink ( Hsieh & Chen 2017) . The impact of alcohol on aggressive action may be as a result of reduced cognition that makes it hard to respond to social situations accurately. Alcohol also interferes with the ability of people to evaluate the intentions of others and also lessens the ability to assess the consequences of aggressive behavior.
In terms of temperatures, studies show that people often become short-tempered and irritable during hot summer days ( Hsieh & Chen 2017) . This situation is because the heat makes them fatigued, grumpy, and uncomfortable. As seen above, negative experiences or emotions escalate the likelihood of aggression. After prolonged episodes or exposure to high temperatures, people become lethargic and uncomfortable, and so they try to reduce these feelings by attacking others. This explains why countries with hotter climates experience more violence than countries with colder climates ( Hsieh & Chen 2017) . For example, Iraq's climate is hot, and therefore there is more violence than in Poland where the temperatures are colder.
Cultural Causes of Aggression
Aggression can be catalyzed by the words and behaviors of other people, but it can also be triggered by cultural norms, beliefs, expectations, and values. For example, in some African cultures, it is believed that a wife should be submissive and controlled by a man in every aspect of family life. Therefore, when the wife is not passive, a husband may become aggressive towards her. Some communities also believe that a husband has regularly hit the wife to show love. In some cultures, strong values are indicating that different forms of aggression are acceptable responses in defending one’s honor ( Kokkinos, Voulgaridou, & Markos, 2016) . In Asian films, people perceived to be warriors are always compelled to engage in fights to protect their dignity and honor through violence and vengeance. In real-life situations, infidelity is perceived as threatening the honor of a man and can, therefore, result in aggression.
Conclusion
Aggression exists in almost every aspect of society. People will often experience or exhibit some form of aggression at some point in their lives. Knowledge about the types, causes, and effects of aggression is essential in helping society to understand how to best deal with aggression and understand other people's behaviors.
References
Gillions, A., Cheang, R., & Duarte, R. (2019). The effect of mindfulness practice on aggression and violence levels in adults: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 48, 104-115 . doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.08.01
Hsieh, I. J & Chen Y. Y. (2017). Determinants of aggressive behavior: Interactive effects of emotional regulation and inhibitory control. PLoS ONE 12(4): e0175651. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175651
Kokkinos, C. M., Voulgaridou, I., & Markos, A. (2016). Personality and relational aggression: Moral disengagement and friendship quality as mediators. Personality and Individual Differences , 95 , 74-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.028
Mitrofan, O., Paul, M., Weich, S. et al. (2014) . Aggression in children with behavioral/emotional difficulties: seeing aggression on television and video games. BMC, Psychiatry 14 , 287. doi:10.1186/s12888-014-0287-7
Simmons, C., Rowan, Z., Knowles, A., Steinberg, L., Frick, P. J., & Cauffman, E. (2019). A life history approach to understanding juvenile offending and aggression . Aggression and Violent Behavior, 49, 101-317 . doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.07.012
