American Urban Politics: The State of the Field

 Question 1 

The emergence and rise of urban political machines 

Urban political machines refer to the political organizations that dominated American city politics in the nineteenth century. The urban political machines were either headed by an individual or a small group of autocrats. However, urban political machines are dead. The understanding of the origin and rise of urban political machines is crucial as they played various roles in urbanization and had significant influence on the demise of political organizations.

The American urban population experienced rapid growth in the nineteenth century. Consequently, urbanization resulted in increased population through both immigration and migration into the newly mushroomed urban centers. Furthermore, a significant percentage of immigrants arrived in American urban centers from different nations worldwide. Their settlement into urban centers greatly impacted political landscape due to stiffened competition. (Judd, Party Machines and the Immigrants 2018). Moreover, the other concern was that the city governments such as Detroit were poorly structured and failed to offer the right leadership and development. Consequently, this influenced political machines' formation, such that there was not sufficient political influence that would influence the earning of votes. An example of poorly organized structures was Tammany Hall, a political machine formed during this era (Judd & Hinze, City Politics: The Political Economic of Urban America 2018). Therefore, this indicates that political machines intended to create a loyal following to win city elections and govern the people. However, these political machines that targeted occupants of the cities had to initiate the right strategies to influence people and earn loyal voter following. Therefore, they enticed their support with jobs and housing since most were new in the city. Consequently, this resulted in huge followings for political machines that had the right organization.

The hierarchy was one of the factors that also contributed to these political machines' success. The observance of hierarchy was to enforce discipline among members of particular political machines. Each political machine had a top leader and a founder (Browning, Marshall, & Tabb 2003). Nevertheless, there were other stakeholders of the political machines such as the ground and block organizers during campaigns. The ground and block organizers mostly engaged in talks with residents on the ground to ensure that they are influenced to support these political machines. Furthermore, there is a need to mention that political machines mostly focus on remaining in power instead of offering good leadership.

The urban machines did not go unopposed as there were several political opponents. The opponents of political machines remained did not succeed in their quest for influence on the political realm for various reasons. First, urban political machines managed to trounce their opponents through helping immigrants with assimilation. A significant number of immigrants had arrived in the U.S. and therefore assimilation was crucial to ensure that they easily get to understand American culture. Second, the political machines also overpowered their opponents since they encouraged business growth and offered job opportunities. Most migrants and immigrants moved to American cities to earn employment. Therefore, they would easily support political machines over their opponents if they were granted job opportunities. Arguably, this indicates that there were various institutional changes during the existence of urban political machines. The best example of an institutional change is that urban centers were designed based on racial affiliations and related approaches. The political machine leaders could only manage to influence people with ease if the majority shared a racial or cultural background (Judd, Party Machines and the Immigrants 2018). Moreover, more job opportunities emerged during this era, proving another change that never existed in the initial city political system. The restructuring of the city governments to centralization is yet another institutional change influenced by political machines. The political machines aimed at controlling the city for different benefits. Therefore, they also choose the strategy of restructuring city governments so that they can enhance their powers. to involve the restructuring of city governments to enhance their powers. Centralization would imply that they could control funds and patronage jobs.  

Factors that influenced the demise of urban political machines  

           There are numerous factors that contributed to the demise of urban political machines. First, city residents started leaving for suburbs after World War II. Earlier on, political machines had managed to earn their popularity because the urban population was increasing that had been as a result of migration and immigration. Furthermore, the political machines could identify a certain group and create loyalty (Judd, Party Machines and the Immigrants 2018). However, migration from urban centers resulted in a new population with loose ties to the cities. These temporary city residents did not see any benefit with affiliating to political machines. Therefore, since World War II, the fall in the urban population implied that the political machines could no longer remain successful, hence resulting in their demise.  

           Second, the civil service reforms also contributed to the fall of the political machines in American cities. Notably, the political machines focused on granting their supported patronage jobs to increase loyalty. However, the civil rights reforms concentrated on ensuring a fair distribution of work amongst city residents. The existing reforms also had restrictions regarding qualification before earning a certain job. Consequently, this resulted in a decline in patronage jobs for the political machines and their supporters. Most political machines’ supporters no longer focused on supporting these organizations since they did not benefit in the process. Therefore, civil service reforms are also a contributing factor towards the fall of political machines. Moreover, it is realistic to claim that people's enlightenment regarding jobs and qualifications is why political machines lost their position. Consequently, societies became elite as they realized that they could earn employment if they had the right qualifications. Therefore, they reduced their support for political machines, which attributed to achieving jobs.  

           Thirdly, the introduction of direct primaries instead of party nominations impacted on the fall of political machines in American cities. Notably, the initial election process entailed parties nominating their favorable candidates. For instance, a party could appoint a candidate to face the opposition in the mayoral seat. The political machines are the ones who focused more on this practice of appointing candidates to compete with the oppositions, since they were interested in creating leaders that they could control. Consequently, changes were initiated to develop primaries for candidates who would vie for the mayoral seat through a party ticket. A change in system implied that the political machines could not get exact leaders that they wanted to govern the cities. Consequently, this also affected these political machines' financial status since they could not benefit if the leader came from a different party. Therefore, the political machine's popularity declined significantly, hence resulting in their demise.  

           Lastly, the judicial review also led to the demise of the political machines in American cities. The judicial review aimed at changing various laws within the cities and federal level. For instance, the judicial review changed the job application process. The initial practice entailed a practice where the city council had the mandate to control issues regarding jobs. However, judicial review required the implementation of a clear job process to enhance fairness. These political machines could no longer entice or influence people with jobs, hence resulting in their decline. Furthermore, the judicial review also created new housing laws (Judd & Hinze, City Politics: The Political Economy of Urban America 2018). The previous practice by political machines aimed at creating a following by offering immigrants and migrants houses. However, a new law entailed housing restrictions that reduced the chances of establishing more homes for their followers. It is also essential to note that judicial review also influenced immigration into the United States and its cities. Whereas it was easier to immigrate into American cities before, judicial review complicated the situation. Subsequently, this also affected the urban population and immigrants who supported political machines.  

Question 2 

The process by which poverty became concentrated in cities and the “suburbs” came to drive economic and population growth in metropolitan areas around the country 

The United States was already experiencing economic growth in most cities by 1840. Back then only a few cities had a population of up to 10,000 people, and New York and Philadelphia are the best examples. However, these cities had different factories that were earning popularity. Development in industries in cities also required cheap labor to work in these factories. Consequently, the need for cheap labor influenced the arrival of immigrants from different nations across the world. These immigrants were interested in working in these industries for cheap labor. Arguably, the United States experienced one of the highest arrivals of immigrants in the 1840s (Judd, The Enduring Legacy 2018). Therefore, immigrant's arrival also required that they settle in cities to ensure they work in these factories. Arguably, this is how poverty concentrated in one place and cities experienced population growth. For instance, poverty is associated with immigrant's arrival since most of them did not own anything. Most people from the first wave of immigrants were homeless, hoping to work in the factories to earn a living. Furthermore, immigrants were paid low wages that white locals could not accept. Therefore, this also implies that they enhanced poverty since they could not achieve economic growth with low wages. Immigrants could only stay in areas with affordable housing, hence the need to concentrate in one region. Moreover, the second wave of immigrants also contributed to poverty and increased population within the cities. Notably, these immigrants were illiterate and uninformed about the American culture. Therefore, illiteracy limited them from earning better jobs for better pay, thus experiencing poverty. 

           The southern American's arrival in the northern cities also contributed to poverty and population rise in most cities. Furthermore, during that period there was controversies about the established institution of slavery. With the newly realized law requiring that that masters should free slaves at the end of slavery, African-Americans could live any part of America. Whereas blacks were free to stay anywhere they wanted, most preferred to relocate to northern states since they no longer trusted the southern territories which were reluctant in abolishing the institution of slavery. Therefore, their migration meant that they also had to start life from scratch like the immigrants. The best example is that southern black immigrants had to work in the factories and provide cheap labor. Consequently, working in factories for cheap wages limited them to accumulate wealth, concentrating poverty in one region (Wyly, Glickman, & Lahr 18). Arguably, most of these southerners were also illiterate, contributing to the lack of better employment opportunities. Whereas poverty would spread and balance if they stayed apart, black immigrants also stayed in one region. It is crucial to note that southern black immigrants' arrival in northern cities forced white families to relocate to the suburbs. Notably, mixing white and black families would have balanced poverty and better life. However, relocation by white families meant that they had to separate themselves from other communities to expose their poverty.  

How decisions by governing institutions at the municipal, state, and federal levels, in the form of laws and regulatory policies and practices, came to shape the process by which the metropolitan area grew, favoring the rise of municipalities in metropolitan area outside of central cities at the expense of central cities 

            Governing institutions had to make different decisions and policies to enhance the better growth of metropolitical areas in cities. The main concern was that a lack of laws could create a situation where poverty is evident. Therefore, there was a need to implement laws, policies and make decisions to safeguard the cities.  

           First, one of the notable decisions is that they promoted the cities using a local booster. Most cities had tainted their images in the previous years. For instance, these cities had tainted their images since they were identified with poverty. Poverty was associated with the cities because they had poor immigrants and migrants from the southern states. Additionally, crime also started escalating in the cities, and this raised a negative image. However, the municipalities decided to create a local booster to market their cities. The urge to improve the cities resulted in competition amongst different municipalities as they attempted to emerge better. Therefore, they introduced local boosters who were supposed to share positives regarding the city (Mollenkopf 14). These boosters understood that the cities also had various negative issues. However, they only focused on the positive to ensure that the cities are attractive. Furthermore, local boosters also involved the citizens in the promotion. For instance, local promoters urged citizens to avoid any negative issue and only share positives regarding their neighborhoods. The creation of a positive mentality amongst the people also contributed to bettering the city. Additionally, including the local booster in promoting the cities also attracted investors. An increase in the number of investors implied that better constructions could emerge and make the city better. Arguably, local boosters were successful since most cities managed to improve their status to match the marketing. The competition also encouraged the cities to get a new look.  

           Second, the city leaders also called for the construction of railroads to achieve better growth an industrialization in their cities. The railroad technology also played a key role in ensuring a better economic status and development from the nineteenth century. Whereas the railroad companies only focused on working with the federal government, they also engaged in city operations later. Notably, the city's authorities had seen how the country was benefitting from the railroad. Therefore, they also believed that the cities could achieve better images if they also included railroads as part of their developments (Ammons 2001). Therefore, these cities would engage the contractors and make deals to construct a railroad in their cities. It is through railroad construction that the cities and metropolitan areas achieved the proper growth. For instance, railroad construction ensured the achievement of equitable development since immigrants managed to get better jobs. Furthermore, many immigrants and migrants had remained unemployed for a long. However, employment from railroad construction ensured the achievement of better living statuses. Additionally, it is also crucial to mention how the railroad improved the city transport system, boosting economic growth. Whereas factories were delaying goods because of a poor transport system, this improved with establishing a railroad in the cities. It is essential to mention that cities were so interested in railroads that they had to give railroad contractors gifts to create railroads in their cities. Lastly, cities also engaged in competition regarding who will first construct a railroad. It is through this competition that they equally achieved better cities.  

           Third, Congress's move to control immigration is another strategic decision that contains population in urban centers and enhanced the cities' better growth. Research indicates that most cities were now experiencing high immigrant population growth in the early twentieth century. However, Congress passed bills to control immigration in 1921 and 1924, and these are some of the reasons they managed to control population growth and poverty in the cities. It is crucial to mention that immigrants contributed to poverty in the city through low wages as factory laborers. Immigrants arrived in American cities to provide cheap labor to the emerging factories (Wyly, Glickman, & Lahr 18). Therefore, reducing the number of immigrants who arrive in the city means that they will also reduce the number of people willing to take cheap labor. Additionally, the cities suffered from poverty because of high rates of unemployment. However, unemployment rates decreased immediately the Congress passed a bill to reduce the number of immigrants in the country. A fall in unemployment level ensures that society achieves growth since everyone contributes towards development. The solution reached by the Congress was also helpful in reducing crime that affected a good growth of urban centers. For instance, most unemployed immigrants engaged in violent activities that tainted the city's image. However, reducing their population through these bills enhances a better image to sustain the city's development. Therefore, it is realistic to claim that these organizations contributed towards the betterment of the cities through their decisions. Failure to make these decisions and policies would imply that most cities would have failed to achieve the proper growth.  

References 

Ammons, D. N. (2001). Municipal Benchmarks Assessing Local Performance and Establishing Community Standards. New York: SAGE Publications.

Browning, R. P., Marshall, D. R., & Tabb, D. H. (2003). can People of Color Achieve equality in City Government? The Setting and the Issues. Racial Politics in American Cities, 5 (23), 220-228.

Judd, D. R. (2018). Party Machines and the Immigrants . In D. R. Judd, & A. M. Hinze, City Politics: The Political Economy of Urban America (pp. 48-50). New York : Routledge.

Judd, D. R. (2018). The Enduring Legacy . In D. R. Judd, & A. M. Hinze, City Politics: The Political Economy of Urban America (pp. 14-15). New York : Routledge.

Judd, D. R., & Hinze, A. M. (2018). City Politics: The Political Economy of Urban America. New York: Routledge.

Mollenkopf, J. H. (14). "How to Study Urban Power". A Phoenix in the Ashes, 2 (3), 100-108.

Wyly, E. K., Glickman, N. J., & Lahr, a. M. (18). ''A Top 1 O List of Things To Know About American Cities". Cityscape, 4 (12), 10-18.