Are Adverse Experiences in Childhood more likely to Predict Adult Incarceration for Men than for Women?

Hostile childhood experiences entail distressing actions that may impact a child negatively and affect the child’s well-being and health. These events include incarceration of a caregiver, parental divorce, sexual abuse, emotion, and physical torture. Prevalence of adverse events in a child’s life has, in the past years, been connected to adverse health and behavioral experiences that point to their link to adverse outcomes in a child’s life. Past researchers have led to economic challenges as one of the most common negative childhood experiences in most countries. Others include separation or divorce of a guardian or parent. The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences in many cases increases as the child ages. Alcohol abuse, substances and drugs, violence in the neighborhood, and mental complications top the list as the most prevalent childhood occurrences in most modern and developing countries. Approximation put the figure at about fifty percent of all children in modern cities experience adverse childhood (ACE’s) in their lifetime. In most states and countries, the majority of children experience more than one ACE. In the United States, states such as New Jersey, Maryland, and Connecticut, a large number of children have not had any experience of ACE. The paper will attempt to look into why adverse experiences in childhood are more likely to predict Adult Incarceration for men than for women.

Part A 

Outline of Research Articles 

Introduction

Hostile childhood experiences entail distressing actions that may impact a child negatively and affect the child’s well-being and health. These events include incarceration of a caregiver, parental divorce, sexual abuse, emotion, and physical torture. Prevalence of adverse events in a child’s life has, in the past years, been connected to adverse health and behavioral experiences that point to their link to adverse outcomes in a child’s life. Past researchers have led to economic challenges as one of the most common negative childhood experiences in most countries. Others include separation or divorce of a guardian or parent. The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences in many cases increases as the child ages. Alcohol abuse, substances and drugs, violence in the neighborhood, and mental complications top the list as the most prevalent childhood occurrences in most modern and developing countries. Approximation put the figure at about fifty percent of all children in modern cities experience adverse childhood (ACE’s) in their lifetime. The primary research question inquires if adverse experiences in childhood are more likely to predict adult incarceration for men than for women? Due to the high expectation and standards put on male children, adverse experiences in childhood are more likely to predict incarceration for men than for women in modern day society.

Latent classes of childhood trauma exposure predict the development of behavioral health outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood . Adverse childhood experiences foretell explicit behavioral and psychiatric outcomes in teenagers and young adulthood.

Ballard et al. (2015), is an observation research. Adverse childhood experiences can foretell future behavioral patterns that include anti-social behaviors. According to the Ballard et al. (2015) observation research titled “ Latent classes of childhood trauma exposure predict the development of behavioral health outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood,” gender is a key player and determinant in the groupings of adverse outcomes and exposures. Key findings reveal that anti-social behaviors are bound to lead one to criminality and psychological trauma expressed negatively further leading to unwarranted social behaviors such as rape and violence. High level of anti-social behavior is most prevalent in males as compared to females. 

Howell et al. (2017)’s observation research tried to analyze why victimizations such as such as physical violence, property offences, neglect, sexual abuse, and verbal abuse are most likely to affect children negatively and elicit criminal behavior in later adulthood life. According to the research, Psychopathology, substance abuse, and gender present substantial risk such as adulthood criminal conducts. The study concluded that adverse experiences in a child’s life are bound to affect a child future adult life in a negative way. The research concluded that children exposed to adverse experiences need treatment and support to help them cope in later life and avoid anti-social behaviors. 

Dargis, Newman & Koenigs (2016) quantitative research attempted to clarify the link between childhood abuse history and psychopathic traits in adult criminal offenders. The research found that a high number of children both male and female are exposed to poor upbringing that is negatively affecting their well-being and future prospects of descent and socially acceptable behaviors. The research concluded that there is a close link between adverse childhood experiences and later adulthood antis-social behaviors. It concluded that later aggressive, poor habits in an individual’s life are as a result of poor upbringing and harsh treatment. 

Some types of childhood adverse experiences such as physical violence, bullying incarceration of a parent are bound bring forth criminalities in adulthood. 

A qualitative research study by Perez, Jennings, and Baglivio (2018) tried to understand a path to serious, violent, chronic delinquency: The harmful aftermath of adverse childhood experiences. According to the research, children exposed to physical violence and violent traits in parents are likely to follow the same trend later in life. The research concluded that types of adverse experiences bound to give rise to maladaptive behaviors include household substance abuse, mental illness, and incarceration of a family member, divorce, separation, witnessing family aggressions, neglect, physical abuse, and sexual violence. 

Roos et al. (2016) observation research “Linking typologies of childhood adversity to adult incarceration: Findings from a nationally representative sample” tried to understand the adverse effects of adult incarceration on young children. From the qualitative study, the researchers argued that childhood adversities have a negative impact on a child’s life and may bring forth negative attributes such as violent behavior, criminalities, and poor morals. The study concluded that Childhood adverse experiences increases the probability of incarceration past the laid down risk elements. 

Wallinius et al. (2016) qualitative research titled “Offenders in emerging adulthood: School maladjustment, childhood adversities, and prediction of aggressive antisocial behaviors.” The qualitative research found that m aladjustment and early psychosocial adversities for example, school adjustment challenges and maltreatment have a strong link to aggressive tendencies in a child’s later life. It concluded that severe school based aggressive tendencies such as bullying is bound to lead to aggressive antisocial tendencies that increase an adult’s criminality.

Adverse childhood experiences are linked to multiple negativities and complications in a child’s life and adverse effects on the child’s adult life 

Reaves et al. (2013) observation research titled “Adverse childhood experiences and adult criminality: How long must we live before we possess our own lives?” analyses the effect of adverse childhood experiences and how long one can live with the tag of emotional and physical abuse. The research found out that Adverse experiences such as aggressive behavior, mental health disorders, and physical abuse often has a negative impact on a child’s adult life. It concluded that Adverse experiences such as aggressive behavior, mental health disorders, and physical abuse often has a negative impact on a child’s adult life. 

Perez, Jennings, & Baglivio (2018) observational research titled, “A path to serious, violent, chronic delinquency: The harmful aftermath of adverse childhood experiences,” strived to find out the cause and pathway to anti-social behavior in a child’s life. The research found out that adverse experiences bound to give rise to maladaptive behaviors include household substance abuse, mental illness, and incarceration of a family member, divorce, separation, witnessing family aggressions, neglect, physical abuse, and sexual violence. It concluded that adverse childhood experiences are bound to lead to detrimental outcomes in the child’s adult life 

Morril et al. (2019) qualitative research titled “Assessing within-and between-family variations in an expanded measure of childhood adversity” aimed at understanding the outcomes of childhood adversity and their impact on the child’s later adult life. The research found out that experiences such as parental unemployment, unsafe neighborhood, and family stress that all arise from family-based sources. It concluded that lengthened and multi-leveled processes seem to have the probability of identifying the primary causes of adverse childhood experiences. 

Conclusion 

The main primary factors that often lead to anti-social behavior include early childhood sexual maltreatment, physical abuse, and drug abuse. Abuse in children is a significant risk feature in the progressive development of externalizing disorders and characteristics that include psychopathy, personality disorder, and anti-social behavior. At the same time, children exposed to adverse experiences need treatment and support to help them cope in later life and avoid anti-social behaviors. A high number of children both male and female are exposed to poor upbringing that is negatively affecting their well-being and future prospects of descent and socially acceptable behaviors. On the other hand, children of incarcerated parents face the risk of poor schooling, poor social development, Incarceration-precise-events in addition to general environmental risk have a potential harm to a child’s holistic development and increases the development of criminal behaviors and antisocial conducts. 

Part B 

Critical Analysis of the Research Articles 

Childhood trauma and its adverse effects are closely associated with imprisonment. Anti-social behaviors such as drug abuse, violence, alcohol use, are most prevalent in males who have had traumatic childhood experiences as compared to females. Michalski (2019, p. 4) argued that experiencing emotional, sexual, or physical abuse at a tender age in life for males have a higher chance of impacting later adult personality, increasing males’ chances of incarceration. High rates of ACE are most notable in men before reaching the age of 18, explaining their high standards of imprisonment. Approximately 60 percent of convicts reported childhood traumatic trauma as compared to only 36 percent of females ( Dargis, Newman & Koenigs, 2016, p. 221) . All types of adverse childhood experiences increase men’s risk of lifespan re-victimization. Repetition of traumatic events is most common in men as compared to women. Detrimental abuse in men continues into adulthood, further increasing their rates of incarceration as compared to women. 

Over 80 percent of prisoners are male. The continued widening gender gap in prison is a sharp pointer to a significant feature in modern-day society ( Levenson, & Grady, 2016) . The majority of the population is under the age of 40, is from disadvantaged communities, and is poorly educated. Most prisoners are also characterized by increased use of drugs, alcohol, mental, and physical diseases. From an early age, men are trained to be aggressive, compete for resources, challenge others, and excel in their abilities. Society has put a heavy responsibility on men as compared to women ( Roos, Afifi, Martin, Pietrzak, Tsai, & Sareen, 2016, p. 584) . Coupled with stressful situations such as physical abuse, mental abuse, sexual abuse, violence, and domestic quarrels, a man’s personality is considerably warped and distorted, leading to anti-social attributes that increase their chances of incarceration later in life. 

Masculine traits and aggressive attitude in men often give rise to a complex web of characters in a man. Wallinius et al. (2016, p. 551) argued that d uring childhood, when a male child is faced with abuse and physical violence, few family members take their time to console and listen to him, unlike a young girl. In most cases, girls are accorded tender care, love, and continuous supportive hand from family members ( Wallinius et al. 2016) . Young boys are left to take care of their sorrows, stress, and pains. These external influences, coupled with adverse childhood experiences, leave a big emotional void and the need to express them. If left unattended and untreated, these antagonistic attributes are manifested later in life through criminal acts, anti-social behavior, and complete social misfits. Male children faced with adverse experiences make little progress even in their younger years due to the mental perception of hostility and unfavorable conditions around their lives. 

ACE harms a child’s brain development, a feat that profoundly affects decision making, stress management, and logical understanding later in life. Levenson and Grady (2016) argued that i f left unattended, ACEs have the potential to alter one’s perception of life significantly. Some of the most common effects of ACEs in later adult life include alcoholism, substance and drug abuse, panic reactions, obesity, promiscuity, high-level depression, and early sexual relations ( Felitti et al., 2017, p. 774) . While not all children exposed to adverse childhood experiences show the stated behaviors, others experience mental and emotional disabilities that affect their overall perception and well-being.    

Strengths  

The articles used are easy to examine and read through. Data used are reliable, precise, and consistent. Even though some of the experiments were complex and difficult to follow, the literature review had detailed information that broke down the explanations in easy to follow steps. The articles are also self-explanatory and do not require extensive explanations and scientific interpretations. The methods used, data collection, analysis, and conclusions can easily be connected with standard social behaviors evident in present-day communities. 

Weaknesses 

Although the arguments and conclusions of the research studies pointed to adverse impacts of ACEs, the final findings cannot be taken as a comprehensive analysis of the general population of all children in a given society or community. If the trend is satisfactory and evident in a group of a selected group of children as portrayed in the research studies, it does not mean that all children will exhibit similar traits in the future.   

Part C 

Concluding Remarks 

Adverse childhood experiences do have severe effects on a child’s future. Some of the most common adverse childhood experiences include emotional neglect, physical neglect, sexual abuse, verbal abuse, and physical abuse. If left unattended and prolonged, these experiences may affect a child’s future adult life. Researches indicate that anti-social behaviors, such as criminal acts, are the most common effects of ACEs. ACEs also have negative impacts on brain development and, in most cases, hinder progressive growth in a child, later manifested as mental illnesses such as personality disorder. 

Future Research Directions 

Longitudinal researchers need to be undertaken to assess multifaceted adverse childhood experiences and mechanisms pertinent to somatic and mental disorders, whereby up-to-date methodologies and strategies are applied. By validating and using somatic and psychosocial risk elements in addition to biological parameters, it is possible to enhance psychological medications for persons who suffered from adverse childhood experiences.   

Conclusion 

Adverse childhood experiences entail traumatic events in a child’s life. They include neglect, sexual abuse, and physical abuse, among others. ACEs are the primary cause of long-lasting physical and mental illnesses. ACEs harm the brain and its development, a feat that is most prevalent in men as compared to women. With the high rate of ACEs on male children as compared to females, the rate of incarceration is highest among males as compared to females. The impact of ACEs is prolonged later in adult life, due to the misconstrued perception that male children should be prepared to take charge of their lives aggressively. Female children experience the psychological warmth and tenderness from their caregivers even later in life, a feat that helps them overcomes the negative impacts of ACEs. Due to this, female victims of ACE can avoid extreme anti-social behaviors that may lead them to crime-related activities and later serve a prison sentence.    

References

Dargis, M., Newman, J., & Koenigs, M. (2016). Clarifying the link between childhood abuse history and psychopathic traits in adult criminal offenders.  Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment ,  7 (3), 221. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801766/ 

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., ... & Marks, J. S. (2019). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study.  American journal of preventive medicine ,  56 (6), 774-786. https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(98)00017-8/fulltext 

Howell, K. H., Cater, Å. K., Miller ‐ Graff, L. E., Schwartz, L. E., & Graham ‐ Bermann, S. A. (2017). The relationship between types of childhood victimisation and young adulthood criminality.  Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health ,  27 (4), 341-353. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/138903/cbm2002_am.pdf?sequence=2 

Levenson, J. S., & Grady, M. D. (2016). The influence of childhood trauma on sexual violence and sexual deviance in adulthood.  Traumatology ,  22 (2), 94. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jill_Levenson/publication/303826280_The_Influence_of_Childhood_Trauma_on_Sexual_Violence_and_Sexual_Deviance_in_Adulthood/links/577e48fb08aed807ae7afa6d/The-Influence-of-Childhood-Trauma-on-Sexual-Violence-and-Sexual-Deviance-in-Adulthood.pdf 

Michalski, J. (2017). The Cumulative Disadvantages of Socially Toxic Family Environments: A Comparison of Early Life Experiences of Incarcerated Men and University Students.  Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change ,  2 (2), 4. http://www.lectitopublishing.nl/Article/Detail/the-cumulative-disadvantages-of-socially-toxic-family-environments-a-comparison-of-early-life 

Morrill, M. I., Schulz, M. S., Nevarez, M. D., Preacher, K. J., & Waldinger, R. J. (2019). Assessing within-and between-family variations in an expanded measure of childhood adversity.  Psychological assessment . http://www.quantpsy.org/pubs/morrill_schulz_nevarez_preacher_waldinger_2019.pdf 

Perez, N. M., Jennings, W. G., & Baglivio, M. T. (2018). A path to serious, violent, chronic delinquency: The harmful aftermath of adverse childhood experiences.  Crime & Delinquency ,  64 (1), 3-25. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0011128716684806 

Reavis, J. A., Looman, J., Franco, K. A., & Rojas, B. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and adult criminality: How long must we live before we possess our own lives?.  The Permanente Journal ,  17 (2), 44. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662280/ 

Roos, L. E., Afifi, T. O., Martin, C. G., Pietrzak, R. H., Tsai, J., & Sareen, J. (2016). Linking typologies of childhood adversity to adult incarceration: Findings from a nationally representative sample.  American journal of orthopsychiatry ,  86 (5), 584. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/ort0000144 

Schimmenti, A., Di Carlo, G., Passanisi, A., & Caretti, V. (2015). Abuse in childhood and psychopathic traits in a sample of violent offenders.  Psychological trauma: theory, research, practice, and policy ,  7 (4), 340. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-56019-001 

Wallinius, M., Delfin, C., Billstedt, E., Nilsson, T., Anckarsäter, H., & Hofvander, B. (2016). Offenders in emerging adulthood: School maladjustment, childhood adversities, and prediction of aggressive antisocial behaviors.  Law and human behavior ,  40 (5), 551. https://portal.research.lu.se/portal/files/21273035/13486335.pdf