Behavior and Emotional Challenges

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

Autism is a neurological condition that affects individuals’ communication patterns, modes of interaction and understands language. Autism is characterized by various symptoms among them being the inability to express themselves, an unusual response to sensory information, impaired social skills and repetitive behavior such as hand flapping. Thus, the primary disabilities associated with autism are in expression, communication, and social interaction.

Treatment

The intervention of individuals with autism involves behavioral therapy, medications, and physical therapy. Early intensive behavioral interventions with the help of a team of professionals' such as physicians, occupational therapists, and speech-language pathologist help autistic children improve learning, social communication skills. This intervention focus on core areas the child is affected (Lord et al.,2013).

Educational Implications

Children with autism often present unique challenges in school or at home, and parents and teachers may find adapting to the environment. Teachers should try to have a better understanding of how autism affects learning and the appropriate strategies that can put in place to help the students (Kenny et al., 2016). These include flexible tailed educational approaches that can be implemented both in school and outside schools. Parents are also encouraged to create a conducive environment at home.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009). Autism spectrum disorders: Data and statistics. Available online at www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html

Kenny, L., Hattersley, C., Molins, B., Buckley, C., Povey, C., & Pellicano, E. (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community. Autism , 20 (4), 442-462.

Lord, C., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., & Amaral, D. G. (2013). Autism spectrum disorders.

Organizations

Autism Society of America 1.800.3AUTISM (1.800.328.8476) http://www.autism . society.org/site

National Autism Center 1.877.313.3833 http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/  

OAR | Organization for Autism Research http://www.researchautism.org/

ATTENTION DEFICIT / HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

Attention-deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder is a neurobiological disorder that leads to the development of inappropriate behavior such as poor concentration, impulsivity, and hyperactivity ( Charach et al., 2011) . Individuals with AD / HD have problems paying attention, and their focus span is often short-lived, thereby making careless mistakes. They also have difficulties following instructions and occasionally fail to accomplish tasks given. Moreover, they dislike tasks that require mental effort.

Treatment 

Children with ADHD are given stimulant medication such as Ritalin and Adderall that help them concentrate ( May & Kratochvil, 2010). Behavioral therapies that focus on behavioral modification such as reinforcing desired behaviors through rewards help play a crucial role in shaping the child's behavior. This, however, is done with professionals such as therapists and counselors.

Educational Implications

To help their children at home, patience is essential for children with ADHD are notorious for exhibiting different patterns of behavior (Rappley, 2005). In school, teachers should help children by demonstrating behaviors that will improve their social interactions and low self-esteem. Besides, it is essential for them to develop and follow a routine that will help the child understand and meet the expectations. As the teacher and parent establish a consistent routine, it is also important to praise any good behavior they exhibit.

References

Charach, A., Dashti, B., Carson, P., Booker, L., Lim, C. G., Lillie, E., ... & Schachar, R. (2011). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

May, D. E., & Kratochvil, C. J. (2010). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drugs , 70 (1), 15-40.

Rappley, M. D. (2005). Attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder. New England Journal of Medicine , 352 (2), 165-173.

REACTIVE ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

RAD is an emotional disorder in which a child is unable to bond with their primary caregiver, thus affecting their development and ability to form meaningful relationships (Zeanah et al., 2004). Children with RAD have difficulties showing genuine care and affection especially to their parents and other close relatives. The child may also be extremely withdrawn and resistant to any activity happening around them. Moreover, they do not have a conscience thus failing to show any remorse or guilt even after misbehaving.

Treatment

Treatment of RAD usually involves medication, a combination of therapy, parental education, and counseling. Professionals engaged in treatment include a pediatrician, child development physicians, and therapists. Typical treatment often involves fun activities that are meant to enhance attachment between the child and the caregivers. Specially designed programs are also implemented to address emotional difficulties (Taftm& Schlein, 2017).

Educational implications

Parents and teachers can help the child by helping him or her interact with peers during play activities. This plays a crucial role in assisting them to handle emotional and behavioral difficulties (Bruce, 2016). The skills learned also promote academic and social success. 

References

Bruce, M. (2016). Reactive Attachment Disorder in infants in foster care and associated mental health and cognitive functioning (Doctoral dissertation, University of Glasgow).

Taft, R. J., & Schlein, C. (2017). How Are We Doing?: Family-School Relationships and Children With Reactive Attachment Disorder. The Open Family Studies Journal , 9 (1).

Zeanah, C. H., Scheeringa, M., Boris, N. W., Heller, S. S., Smyke, A. T., & Trapani, J. (2004). Reactive attachment disorder in maltreated toddlers. Child Abuse & Neglect , 28 (8), 877-888.

CONDUCT DISORDER

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

Conduct disorder is a behavioral and emotional disorder that forces a child o exhibit a pattern of disruptive and violent behavior (Blair, Leibenluft & Pine, 2014). It is estimated that about 15 percent of children in their late childhood. It is common in boys as compared to girls. Children with conduct disorder tend to exhibit aggressive behavior towards people such as physical violence, bullying, and threatening. They also tend to violate rules, breaking people's property and running away from home and school (Frick, 2016).

Treatment

Treating children with conduct disorder often involves long-term psychotherapy and behavior therapy to help the child learn new acceptable behaviors as well as new ways of thinking. Short-term parent management training also plays an essential role in assisting parents to understand ways of responding to their children to avoid aggression and rebuild their relationship. 

Educational Implication

Many children with conduct disorder struggle a lot in school, and this may cause a lot of distress. Teachers can focus on good behaviors modeled by the student and reinforce them for better results. Individual classroom support and assessment in learning can help the child express them appropriately in different situations and also manage their anger effectively (Salekin, 2016). Parenting groups can help the parents learn strategies that will help in supporting and encouraging positive behavior in the child. 

References

Blair, R. J. R., Leibenluft, E., & Pine, D. S. (2014). Conduct disorder and callous-unemotional traits in youth. New England Journal of Medicine , 371 (23), 2207-2216.

Frick, P. J. (2016). Current research on conduct disorder in children and adolescents. South African Journal of Psychology , 46 (2), 160-174.

Salekin, R. T. (2016). Psychopathy in childhood: Toward better informing the DSM–5 and ICD-11 conduct disorder specifiers. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment , 7 (2)

OPPOSITIONAL DEFIANT DISORDER

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

ODD is a disruptive behavior in children that is characterized by defiant, unruly and hostile act towards the authority. Children with ODD are extraordinarily hostile and defiant in school and at home (Cavanagh et al., 2017). They direct their aggression and malicious behavior to their peers, parents, and teachers. They are often uncooperative when they are corrected and blame others for their mistakes. 

Treatment 

Upon evaluation by a medical doctor, psychologist and therapist use various methods to treat the disorder including medication, parental training and behavioral therapies (Burke & Loeber, 2016). The treatment attempts to teach the parent to learn new strategies for dealing with the child's behavior and rebuilding the relationship between the child and the parent. 

Educational Implications 

It is often difficult to manage children with ODD in the classroom. For teachers establishing the behavior expectations that they need from them in a more friendly way helps them in modeling the appropriate. Students with ODD often act as they do not care about others. However, using praise and rewards when appropriate is useful in helping them change their behaviors. As for parents, it is always appropriate to give the child many choices that are consistent with home riles and discipline.

References

Burke, J. D., & Loeber, R. (2016). Evidence-Based Interventions for Oppositional Defiant Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Handbook of Evidence-Based Interventions for Children and Adolescents , 181.

Cavanagh, M., Quinn, D., Duncan, D., Graham, T., & Balbuena, L. (2017). An oppositional defiant disorder is better conceptualized as a disorder of emotional regulation. Journal of attention disorders , 21 (5), 

INTERMITTENT EXPLOSIVE DISORDER

Definition, Prevalence, and characteristics

An intermittent explosive disorder is a chronic disorder that involves sudden episodes of violent behavior, impulsiveness, and angry verbal outbursts (Coccaro, Lee, & McCloskey, 2014). Symptoms of this disorder occur suddenly with little or no warning causing irritability, aggression and physical fights 

Treatment 

There are several ways of treating Intermittent Explosive Disorder such as medications that aim at controlling impulsivity. Cognitive behavioral therapy that combines cognitive restructuring, training and relaxation techniques significantly help in improving aggression and depression (Frick & Matlasz, 2018).

Tips and Educational Implications

Children with Intermittent Explosive Disorders can affect a child’s learning including concentration and poor performance. Teachers and parents need to recognize the moods of children with the disorder and how they can monitor the changes in the moods. Once they learn, they can devise strategies for helping them (Grant & Leppink, 2015). They should also help the students have a better understanding of the consequences of their actions. This will enable them to make the right decision.

References

Coccaro, E. F., Lee, R., & McCloskey, M. S. (2014). A relationship between psychopathy, aggression, anger, impulsivity, and intermittent explosive disorder. Aggressive behavior , 40 (6), 526-536.

Grant, J. E., & Leppink, E. W. (2015). Choosing a treatment for Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders: limited evidence, no approved drugs to guide treatment. Current Psychiatry , 14 (1), 28.

Frick, P. J., & Matlasz, T. M. (2018). Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders. In Developmental Pathways to Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders (pp. 3-20).

OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER 

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is an anxiety disorder that is characterized by repetitive unwanted thoughts, images, and obsessions that compel an individual to perform specific tasks (Veale & Roberts, 2014). Individuals with OCD are obsessed with exactness, need for perfection and mental rituals.

Treatment

Antidepressants medications are often the first to be prescribed by a doctor depending on the age of the child. Cognitive behavioral therapy helps in changing the distorted thinking patterns and habits replacing them with productive ones (Bokor & Anderson, 2014). Exposure and response prevention therapy help the child in learning new ways of responding to anxiety instead of repetitive rituals. This is mostly done by a mental health professional and a therapist.

Educational Implications and Tips for Teachers

Children with OCD have difficulties completing assignments and may disrupt other children. Teachers and parents need to be aware of events that may trigger the symptoms. These can be anxiety and irritability and change the schedule of the child can be helpful in reducing the effects of the symptoms (De Silva, 2014). Children are often bullied because of their OCD tendencies, and it is therefore essential for teachers to develop peer programs that will help other children understand them. 

References

Bokor, G., & Anderson, P. D. (2014). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of \pharmacy practice , 27 (2), 116-130.

De Silva, P. (2014). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. In Adult Psychological Problems (pp. 143-162). Taylor & Francis.

Veale, D., & Roberts, A. (2014). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. BMJ , 348 , g2183.

BIPOLAR DISORDER

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

Bipolar disorder is a severe brain illness that causes individuals to go through unusual mood changes (Grunze, 2015). Children with bipolar disorder may have extremely high moods and also low moods. The change of moods often causes irritability, appear withdrawn and unpredictable.

Treatment

They are several medications that help children deal with the symptoms of bipolar. They are often prescribed by a doctor depending on how extreme the symptoms are. Different kinds of psychotherapy such as the talk therapy help the children in managing and changing their sudden moods (Zaretsky et al., 2008). They also support the child get along with the family and friends. 

Educational Implications and Tips

School work can be stressful for children with bipolar disorder making them perform poorly. Teachers should recognize that diversities that exist in children and adopt teaching methods that accommodate them such as providing bipolar students with flexible learning schedules and unlimited access to breaks (Colom & Vieta, 2006). Parents and teachers should also prevent any bullying especially if the child is shy.

References

Colom, F., & Vieta, E. (2006). Psychoeducation manual for bipolar disorder . Cambridge University Press.

Grunze, H. (2015). Bipolar disorder. In Neurobiology of Brain Disorders (pp. 655-673).

Zaretsky, A., Lancee, W., Miller, C., Harris, A., & Parikh, S. V. (2008). Is cognitive-behavioral therapy more effective than psychoeducation 

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY 

Definition, Prevalence, and Characteristics

Traumatic brain Injury is a nondegenerative attack of the brain from external mechanical forces leading to physical, cognitive and social impairment ( Bigler, Weiner, & Lipton, 2009). Traumatic severe brain injury results in amnesia, confusion, and headaches. Children with traumatic brain injury are often irritable, experience changes in playing behaviors and also acquired skills.

Treatment 

Children with traumatic brain injury are given medications that help in reducing pain especially headaches. Physical and cognitive therapy plays a crucial role in increasing flexibility, improving sleeping patterns and muscular endurance ( Heegaard & Biros, 2007).

Educational Implications

Children with traumatic brain injury experience cognitive, psychosocial and physical deficits that affect their learning. It is the role of the teachers to assess their needs and abilities and apply interventions that will help them learn better. Since a child physical and mental endurance is already limited, parents and teachers should give children a less load of tasks and assignments ( McDonald & Flanagan, 2004).

References

Bigler, E. D., Weiner, M., & Lipton, A. (2009). Traumatic brain injury. Textbook of Alzheimer Disease and Other Dementias , 229-246.

Heegaard, W., & Biros, M. (2007). Traumatic brain injury. Emergency medicine clinics of North America , 25 (3), 655-678.

McDonald, S., & Flanagan, S. (2004). Social perception deficits after traumatic brain injury: interaction between emotion recognition, mentalizing ability, and social communication. Neuropsychology , 18 (3), 572.

MENTAL RETARDATION/ DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 

Definition and characteristics

Mental retardation is an intellectual disability characterized by lower than average levels of intelligence regarding cognitive ability and social skills ( Hodapp,& Burack, 2015). Children with mental retardation are easily agitated and frustrated by the complexities that exist in life, have poor impulse control and often react aggressively ( Akhmetzyanova, 2014) .

Treatment

Treating children with mental retardation encompasses family therapy that helps the parents handle the child ease by creating a supportive environment. Mentally disabled children can also go through training that enables them to master language and skills such as communicating with others in individual schools.

Education implication

Children with mental retardation learn very slowly and may not keep up with the rest of the students. Due to their poor learning and communication skills, it is the roles of teachers to ensure they adopt strategies that will enable learn effectively. Most of them are unable to live a self-sufficient and independent lifestyle. Thus parents should provide them with excellent social support ( Baroff & Olley, 2014).

References

Akhmetzyanova, A. (2014). The development of self-care skills of children with severe mental retardation in the context of Lekoteka.

Baroff, G. S., & Olley, J. G. (2014). Mental retardation: Nature, cause, and management . Routledge.

Hodapp, R. M., & Burack, J. A. (2015). Developmental approaches to children with mental retardation: A second generation. Developmental Psychopathology: Volume Three: Risk, Disorder, and Adaptation , 235-267.