Schools play a critical role in the development of students. Besides, it allows them to acquire vital skills that they can use to become useful members of society and succeed in life. It is against this background that governments strive to improve their respective education sectors ( Louis, 2018; Siegel, 2020 ). Besides, educators, theorists, philosophers, and policymakers are always working to enhance how the teaching and learning process occurs in schools. Some of the issues that have attracted the attention of education stakeholders are the subject of philosophy, leadership theory and accountability frameworks. With the current concerns about the quality of education that students received, there has been an increasing interest in various elements of education, including philosophy, leadership and accountability. Also, the world has witnessed greater collaboration among historians, educators, and philosophers to find ways of enhancing the quality of services delivered to students. This paper aims to explore theories of learning, leadership, assessment, and accountability and determine their application in teaching and learning.
Analysis of the History and Philosophy of Teaching and Learning
The philosophy of education tends to reflect on the aims, nature, and the problems that are faced in the education sector. Furthermore, there appears to be a consensus among experts that educational philosophy tends to be Janus-oriented since it entails examining both the inward and outward aspect of education (Siegel, 2020). As a result, it tends to be linked with a wide range of fields such as science, medicine, bioethics, and law. The dual nature of the educational philosophy requires the understanding of the basic tenets of the related fields and their historical basis. Consequently, attempts have been made over the years to explore and examine the history and philosophy of education to gain information that can help in determining its application in learning and teaching processes.
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The history of educational philosophy is considered to be a major area of concern for educators, researchers and policymakers. IT has emerged as one of the factors that help in setting intellectual agenda for enhancing contemporary education. Although it is not possible to review every aspect of the history of educational philosophy, researchers have strived to identify the main events and elements that ended up influencing contemporary education. The western philosophy of education is usually traced to ancient Greece. Some of the main historical figures who contributed to the development of critical philosophical views that continue to influence education were from ancient Greece ( Siegel, 2020 ). The philosophers came up with frameworks related to metaphysical, ethical, political, and epistemological events and models. Socrates, for instance, developed the Socratic method of question which paved way for the development of reasoning methods and dialectical thinking approach. The philosophers created the model to show how people could get reasons that would justify judgments, actions, and beliefs. Such models resulted in the creation of frameworks that would be used to encourage students and educators to focus on the pursuit of a life of a reason. The Socratic Method can be linked to the central place of reason in the education sector.
Another historical figure who contributed to the development of education philosophy was Plato. Plato was a student of Socrates and strived to emphasis the importance and value of reason. In the dialogue titled Republic, Plato strived to set out a philosophy of education where various students would get diverse educational materials, contents and techniques based on their stations in life, abilities, and interests (( Siegel, 2020 ). Plato appeared to be promoting a utopian vision that would be used later own as the basis for ensuring that every student is treated as a unique individual. Besides, the philosophy provided a basis for creating a model for hierarchical sorting of students into different categories. The ideas were further refined by Aristotle who is considered to be a student of Plato. Aristotle focused on highlighting the significance of wisdom and good judgment. Furthermore, he appeared to be more optimistic compacted to Plato and argued that character could be developed through the promotion of moral virtue. In other words, Aristotle believed that communitarism could influence the rights, interests, and behaviors of individuals ( Siegel, 2020 ). Jean-Jacques Rousseau is another important historical figure who contributed to the development of educational philosophy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau promoted the idea that formal education just like the society, was morally and inevitable corrupting (Siegel, 2020). Therefore, he supported the idea that education process should be designed in a manner that promotes the free and natural development of children. The philosophy differs with the views that had been promoted by Plato in that it would support different educational set ups for boys and girls.
Apart from the renowned Greek philosophers, there were other people who made a significant contribution to the development of educational philosophy. Some of them are Thomas Aquinas, John Locke, Dewey, Augustine, and David Hume. The other figures were John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, Immanuel Kant, and Bertrand Russell ( Siegel, 2020). It is imperative to state that the above historical figures took diverse approaches when examining the issues of education. Despite this being the case, they seem to have agreed that the key purpose of education is to promote reasoning among students. In addition, they believed that education should be delivered in a manner that would allow students to understand their environment and reason appropriately when faced with challenges and dilemmas.
Historic and Current Theories of Leadership
The concept of educational theories has also attracted the attention of researchers and experts in the field of education. Before examining the historical and current aspects of the subject, it is imperative to explore and understand the meaning of educational leadership. In most instances, educational leadership is considered to be the professional practice of leaders who hold administrative roles that allow them to influence and guide educations toward improving learning and teaching processes ( Noddings, 1995 ). The leaders work at different levels of education including elementary, primary, secondary and tertiary. The people who hold such leadership positions are normally employed as administrators, assistant administrators, and principles. Within the context of early childhood education and secondary level, they may also act as academic deans, heads of schools, director, department chairs, and presidents. The direction that other educators take when it comes to accomplishing their professional objectives may be influenced by the educational leaders. Therefore, the understanding of the history of educational leadership theory is critical in the current globalized and highly dynamic world.
The history of educational leadership theory can be traced to the United States. The frameworks were largely developed based on principles of commerce and industry management. In addition, they have been influenced by practices in the field of business and adopted in a manner that can allow for their application in the context of education ( Noddings, 1995 ). In addition, the theoretical models that have been applied in the US education sector are similar to those that are used in most developed nations around the world. Since the educational leadership theories are derived from diverse interdisciplinary conceptualizations, they are generally dynamic and emergent in nature ( Louis, 2018 ). Furthermore, the theories that have been linked to education are always being investigated by researchers to determine how they can be applied to different educational settings. A historical examination of the theories show that those that have been applied to the context of educational leadership encompasses business elements and principles such as best practices, reliable approaches and capabilities. In addition, the models revolve around various types of educational leadership, characteristics of the leader, and the activities that the leaders should undertake to ensure that they succeed in their roles. The element that is adopted in every educational leadership theory may depend on the educational context under consideration.
There is also a consensus among researchers and experts that majority of the educational leadership frameworks that have been developed over the years fall into three basis categories. The first one is the leadership frameworks that relate to the characteristics of the leader such as style, traits and behaviors. The second categories refer to the leadership models that are based on the actual concept of leadership. In this case, the focus is on subjects such as leadership, power, coercion, management, and conceptual framework. Finally, there are the theories that are developed based on the activities and practices that leaders usually engage in while fulfilling their roles. The models relate to the approaches that the leaders use to influence their followers or achieve the intended objectives.
Philosophic Relationship between Assessment and Accountability for Teaching and Learning
Accountability can be described as the responsibility that an individual has to some activity or to another person. In other words, it relates to the obligation that a person may have to another party ( Knoeppel & Brewer, 2011; Bremman, 2015). Within the context of education, for instance, teachers’ accountability can be examined by evaluating the responsibility that they have for the students. In addition, the teachers are responsible for ensuring that the learning process occurs in the expected manner. Today, teachers also work in an environment in which they are expected to continuously evaluate the performance of their students. The evaluation can be done through formative or summative assessment methods. In both cases, the primary objective is to determine the extent to which the teachers have succeeded in achieving teaching and learning goals. In addition, it helps in identifying the students who have not been able to grasp the content that is being taught in class. Such students may require additional support from the teachers or their peers so that they can succeed in their objectives. Therefore, assessment can be considered to be one of the main activities that teachers undertake as they strive to remain accountable to students and the learning process.
The relationship between accountability and assessment can be examined through philosophical methods. Presently, there are high stakes that have been linked with the subject of accountability testing within the education sector (Bremman, 2015). The trend has resulted in behavioral change among teachers, students, and other stakeholders in the education sector. It is also imperative to state that teachers are expected to use valid assessment and validation models to determine whether learning goals are being achieved. For the regulatory agencies, the outcomes of the assessment methods offer a basis for determining whether the educators are accomplishing their assigned roles. Once the outcome of the assessment process has been determine, the next process entail designing and implementing changes that will ensure that the learning and teaching processes occur as expected. If the assessment outcomes show that the intended educational goals have not been realized, the educational leaders and the regulatory agencies may be forced to devise methods of improving learning in the schools. The process may entail relying on different educational philosophies to improve the learning process. For instance, the Jean-Jacques Rousseau can be used as the basis for changing the learning process. The model holds that children are different and may require different teaching methods to succeed in their duties. Therefore, the teachers may be required to adopt the individualized instructional methods to meet the specific needs of the students. Furthermore, the intervention will provide a basis for ensuring that students grasp the skills that they require to achieve their full potential. In this regard, assessment provides a basis for determining the extent to which the teachers are fulfilling their roles. In addition, it is also evident that the philosophical theories of education provides a basis for determining the potential link between assessment and accountability in the educational sector.
Discussion of Theories of Learning, Leadership, Assessment, and Accountability
The educational sector has undergone significant transformation in the recent years. Furthermore, attempts have been made to identify methods through which teaching and learning processes can be enhance (Bremman, 2015). One of the areas that stakeholders in the sector have focused on is the subject of theory of leadership. In this case, attempts have been made to determine how the theoretical frameworks that were developed by philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato can be used as the basis for ensuring that learning process occurs in the right way. In addition, the theories have been used to identify ways through which educators can enhance the academic performance of students. The second area that has attracted the attention of scholars and educations is the subject of educational leadership. A review of existing literature show that most of the educational leadership models that are in used today are borrowed from the field of business. The models have provided avenues through which administrators, principles, and other leaders in the sector can guide other educators to ensure that the intended objectives are achieved. Finally, researchers have shown significant interest in the concepts of assessment and accountability. In this case, the theories of education have provide an excellent basis for determining the link between the two. In addition, existing philosophical theories have helped in showing the manner in which assessment provides a way of determining whether the teachers are accountable to the student and schools.
References
Bremman, R. (2015). Testing for accountability: A balancing act that challenges current testing practices and theories. Measurement, 13 , 35–38.
Knoeppel, R. C., & Brewer, C. A. (2011). Education reform, equal opportunity and educational achievement: Do trend data adequately report progress? Education Policy Analysis Archives, 19 (10), 1-28.
Louis, K. (2018). Review of research how leadership influences student learning . https://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/Documents/How-Leadership- Influences-Student-Learning.pdf
Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of Education . Westview Press.
Siegel, H. (2020). Philosophy of education . https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of- education
