PART A
The Dual coding theory (DCT) gives details regarding the experience and behavior of humans relating to the dynamic linked processes, that control the verbal or non-verbal illustrations of a modal and rich network. The research clearly shows the compactness, illustrations and verbal linking procedures that play key roles in diverse fields of education. The survey clearly illustrates factors affecting education such as motivation, examination anxiety, personal disparities, acquiring motor skills, memory, knowledge comprehension and effectual teaching (Clark & Paivio, 1991). The DCT provides imperative implications which can be used for knowledge and preparation in educational psychology, especially when it comes to training of teachers and educational research. (Clark & Paivio, 1991).
The article explores the theoretical as well as the analytical aspects of DCT in the education system, especially early education and how it can be improved. A historical context of the two concepts that were put into motion in order to invent the DCT are also examined. The article also highlights on the hypothesis implemented in developing DCT especially its application in the field of education. The article also provides information from other recent articles that are relevant to the DCT in the education sector. In the DCT Paivio tries to give both the non-verbal and verbal instruction concepts. This theory makes the assumption that a dual cognitive subsystem exists, one system focused on interpretation and processing of things that are nonverbal (imagery) while the one is focused on verbal things like language.
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Paivio suggests that the two units of representation can be described as imagens for images that are mental and logogens or chunks for verbal things. He further goes ahead to explain that imagens are structured as pieces of the entire connection while logogens are structured in hierarchies and links (Clark & Paivio, 1991). Three types of interpretations are recognized when it comes to the dual coding theory; the associative interpretation which involves triggering of similar non-verbal and verbal systems, representational interpretation which involves actively triggering the nonverbal and verbal interpretation, and referential interpretation which involves triggering of the verbal through use of the nonverbal system and vice versa(Clark & Paivio, 1991). Some tasks in the education sector require use of one kind of processing while some tasks require the use of all three types of processing. The DCT has been applied in multiple cognitive situations such as in language, solving problems, mnemonics and learning concepts. The dual coding theory is an essential element when it comes to understanding the importance of three-dimensional capabilities in intelligent theories like Guilford’s. The connection between bilingual processing and dual coding is also highlighted by Clark & Pavio and how the DCT can be implemented in the contemporary educational psychology (Clark & Paivio, 1991).
Pavio 1991 provides numerous experiments that act as illustrations to show the significance of imagery when it comes to cognitive operations. For example, in one experience the participants viewed two objects that varied in roundness such as a goblet and tomato, they were then asked to point out the rounder object between the two. The presentation of the items was in form of pairs; words and pictures, pictures and words. Participants with a pair of picture-picture gave the fastest response, followed by participants with a pair of picture-word and the slowest were those with a word-word pair. This experiment gives the notion that recognition and memory are improved by imparting information in verbal and visual form.
PART B
The contemporary empirical evidence on the efficiency and significance of imagery has led to the rebirth of imagery, and it being initiated in the education system through DCT. Yatte 1966, claims that the pinnacle of using imagery as a memory aid can be dated back to the 16 th century when Giordano Bruno had an occult memory technique, the technique aimed at merging super celestial and earthly knowledge ideologies by the use of various ancient systems. The methods entailed the use of a loci connected to magical star-pictures methodically structured according to the associated astrology structure (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006). The theory implies that both the verbal and non-verbal system are linked to language capabilities. The verbal system is an essential factor in majority of languages though it is only satisfactory to a few. This is because the verbal system borrows from the valuable knowledge base of non-verbal systems to make it expressive and interesting. On the contrary non-verbal system depends on the verbal system to perform some tasks, but it can independently perform some complex tasks like playing the “solitaire” computer game. When it comes to tasks like playing crossword puzzles, the verbal system dominates while in jigsaw puzzles the non-verbal (Imagery) dominates (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006). Cognition therefore has a varying pattern depending on the level of development of the verbal and non-verbal systems.
The developmental theory is an inherent link on how the DCT can be implemented in the education system. The main realistic DCT aspect that can be used in the development hypothesis, is the emphasis of using the nonverbal system as the basis for developing cognitive skills including language. Early development is mostly marked by concrete events, objects and sensorimotor encounters (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006). Cognitive growth hugely depends on early powerful nonverbal encounters especially those that are linked with language experiences, which are essential for the growth of the verbal system in order to make the dual-coding mind complete. It is important to note that cognitive growth won’t be triggered effectively when the early development emphasis is not proportional to the nonverbal experiences and the language encounters. The analysis of DCT in the early stage is coherent to the common theoretical assessments, and facts that the early experiences affect behavior and brain development (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006).
In western nations, the education programs are structured based on the language experience as the main foundation, especially in education for children that are socially-disadvantaged. For example, in the U.S numeracy skills, literacy and language are the main focus for preschoolers Head Start learning programs, particularly children from low-income households. This fact is emphasized by the new No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act that advocates for “favors teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies, with basically no mention of anything else” (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006). He questioned the effectiveness of the system used in the U.S classrooms that focused heavily on these abilities, “It would help if efforts were made to ensure that targeted preschoolers experience the cultural activities that provide conversational opportunities for many advantaged parents and preschoolers, such as trips to zoos, museums, shows, bookstores–and even quality toy stores!” Using the DCT hypothesis this recommendation mainly focuses on experiences that exclusively trigger growth of nonverbal aspect of the dual coding system (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006).
When it comes to reading, students who are beginning to read often learn how to read particular words faster through sight when there are pictures accompanying the words, as compared to when the words are only accompanied by their pronunciation’s. Distinct verbal objects help in increasing the knowledge of reading and the ability to remember in not only children but also adults. Specific development planners such as brief texts that are written before the other words enhance the grasp and recollection of the teaching instructions. This outcome greatly mirrors the importance of using concrete verbal or imagery systems, and their significance in comprehending, recalling and retrieving the written information (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006).
Mathematics also implements DCT mechanism to create a common number processing theory. This concept focuses on creating a concrete foundation of perceiving numbers and the function of including imagery in numerical operations. The first step is usually introducing students to numeral naming, then their relationship with other objects such as pictures. They then learn how to multiply, add and subtract by adding or taking objects such as marbles from a pile. Multiplication, addition or subtraction tables are memorized through the use of repetitive memorization. All these mathematical skills and more are learnt through the development of increased and distinct representation (logogens), which represent the operation and name of number, and operators and numerals (Imagens) (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006). Different colours of rods with varying lengths are also used to teach fractions, addition, subtraction among other operations since they abstractly represent mathematical signs which children can easily manipulate and remember. Efficiency in using DCT in mathematics depends on the accurate distinction of mental connections and symbols (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006).
Education in the 21 st century is encountering many challenges especially due to the increased advancements and innovations in technology. New technologies have been introduced and implemented in the classrooms in all educational levels ranging from elementary, middle school, high school and even in universities. Educational games development, CAI, technology training and instructional design departments have made the new innovations part and puzzle of their learning ( Ouyang & Stanley, 2014). It is therefore important to continually emphasize and support the research concerning educational matters. A variety of theories concerning technology in education have been endorsed due to their exceptional and countless benefits, especially when it comes to technological areas like media design, learning and teaching ( Nicholas et al, 2017). However, despite the numerous theories introduced none has yet been identified as the universal theory or the most excellent. It is therefore important to choose a theory that best suits the educational needs of the learners so that it can work in harmony with the teaching environment and subject matter ( Ouyang & Stanley, 2014). Teachers need to research and choose the most relevant theory that meshes and optimizes the learning of students. Any aspiring or already trained teacher should have the ability to accurately and flexibly incorporate several educational theories in order to ensure that their teaching is effective. Like Confucius declared, “Words without literary talent will not become popular” ( Ouyang & Stanley, 2014).
From the evaluated empirical articles, it is clear that lack of adequate theoretical knowledge about the education theories, by learning instructors will result to teaching based on personal experience and creative learning will be lacking. The educational theories supplement the teaching methods of the instructor and increase the chances of the instruction being effective. Instructors are charged with the role of selecting a suitable educational theory then establishing a curriculum suitable for teaching based on the available resources, the subject being taught, environmental conditions, set targets and goals. In the present-day century education has greatly evolved in many aspects such as the existence of online classes, and technology has also greatly developed which means more educational theories as well as technological advancements will be made to keep up with the trend.
The article mainly focuses on the benefits and positive impacts of DCT in the education system and psychology, but there are numerous issues highlighted that are considered empirically controversial, due to their uncertain results and theoretical disputes. For instance, when it comes to recalling, concrete statements are not always an illustration of more integration as opposed to abstract statements (Sadoski &Paivio, 2006).
References
Clark, J. M, & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational psychology review , 3(33), 149-210.Retrieved from: http://nschwartz.yourweb.csuchico.edu/Clark%20&%20Paivio.pdf
Nicholas, M., McKenzie, S., & Wells, M. A. (2017). Using digital devices in a first-year classroom: A focus on the design and use of phonics software applications. Journal of education and learning , 6 (1), 267-282.
Ouyang, J. R., & Stanley, N. (2014). Theories and research in educational technology and distance learning instruction through Blackboard. Universal Journal of Educational Research , 2(2), 161-172.
Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2001). Imagery and text: A dual coding theory of reading and writing . Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
