Phases of the Cell Cycle
Interphase- G0, G1, S, and G2
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Differences between Transcription and Translation
Transcription is the process by which information on a gene’s DNA sequence is copied onto an mRNA. It marks the beginning of gene expression and occurs in the nucleus. Enzyme RNA polymerase and a number of accessory proteins- transcription factors, mediate translation. It occurs in three main stages including initiation, elongation, and termination. The template is the genes within the genome. The products are usually numerous functional forms of RNA. In prokaryotes, it occurs in the cytoplasm while in eukaryotes, it occurs in the nucleus.
On the other hand, translation is the decoding of an m-RNA, according to its genetic code, and using this information to come up with a chain of amino acids(Freeman, 2009). Translation occurs at the ribosomes. It is the second stage of gene expression. The template used is the m-RNA, which produces proteins. It takes place in the cytoplasm and ribosomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes respectively.
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Independent, Dependent, and Standardized Variables in the experiment
Independent variables- Euploid cells
Dependent variables- Aneuploid cells
Standardized variables- nutrients, oxygen, humidity, temperature, and light.
The hypothesis that if Mitosis Arrest Deficient 1 (MAD1) gives the signal to progress to anaphase after chromosomes have aligned, then a group of mutant MAD1 cells will more often have imperfect chromosome numbers after a series of cell divisions compared to normal cells is supported. As seen in the experiment, the aneuploid cells were an average of thirty point two five percent, almost triplicate of the percent with normal MAD1 cells. In ideal situations, duplicated chromosomes are meant to be split equally between two identical daughter cells. The MAD1 protein is a constituent protein of the spindle assembly checkpoint (Chi & Jeang, 2011). It delays the onset of anaphase even when a single chromosome is unattached to the spindle microtubules during mitosis. In the event of the presence of mutant MAD1 cells, then the fidelity of chromosome segregation at spindle assembly checkpoint is lost. All cells irrespective of the alignment of the chromosomes will split and the cycle progresses to anaphase. As a result, daughter cells will have an excess or deficit of chromosomes- aneuploidy cells.
Recommendations
Future research should try to find the exact cause of mutation of the MAD 1 protein or a way to eliminate or replace the mutating factor within the cell.
Future experiments could explore the presence of mutant MAD1 protein cells in people without cancer and its effects.
Exploration of the key signal amplification reactions for the spindle assembly checkpoint as a means of preventing progression to anaphase stage despite the presence of mutant MAD1 protein.
Future Questions
Is the presence of mutant MAD1 cells a pre-condition for all cancers?
What is the effect of cancer treatment on mutant MAD1 protein?
Proteins that may Affect Aspects of Cell Division
The MAD2 protein also contributes to spindle checkpoint signaling. Since the MAD1 contains the MAD2, compromising the latter protein affects the signaling and responses of the MAD2 protein. Cyclins also affect are constantly synthesized and degraded during cell division. During synthesis, cyclins are activated and bind to other proteins causing complexes (Lim & Kaldis, 2013). An example is the cyclin-Cdk complex, which acts as a sign to mean the cell can progress to the next stage of the cycle.
References
Chi, Y.-H., & Jeang, K.-T. (2011). Mitotic Arrest-Deficient Protein 1 BT - Encyclopedia of Cancer. In M. Schwab (Ed.) (pp. 2343–2345). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16483-5_3778
Freeman, R. (2009). What is translation? Evidence and Policy . https://doi.org/10.1332/174426409X478770
Lim, S., & Kaldis, P. (2013). Cdks, cyclins and CKIs: roles beyond cell cycle regulation. Development . https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.091744
