St. Augustine is one of the earliest Christians in the history of Christianity, and his life history has been well documented to give us the feel of how the ancient life of Christians was. He was a brilliant public rhetoric which was an ex-Manichean and had a pagan educational background, and these made his contemporaries suspicious of him. He wrote to confess: intellectual pride, ambition, Christian misunderstanding, lusts of flesh and Manichaeism.
St. Augustine praises God for who has mercifully guided his path and brought him from misery and error and on these a detailed account is given. I quote, "I was exceedingly astonished as I anxiously reflected …, since the nineteenth year of my life, when I began to burn with a zeal for wisdom, planning …, I would abandon all the empty hopes and lying follies of hollow ambitions. And here I was already thirty, and still mucking …, in a state of indecision, avid to enjoy present fugitive delights which were dispersing my concentration, while I was saying: ‘Tomorrow I shall find it…'" (Bk. VII, 5, p. 104). Confession is a story of true conversion. Augustine undergoes several conversions converting from Manichaeism to the pursuit of truth with Cicero's Hortensius to an intellectual acceptance of Christianity to finally emotional acceptance of Christian faith. I quote, "It gave me different values and priorities. Suddenly every vain hope became empty to me, and I longed for the immortality of wisdom with incredible ardors in my heart" (Bk. 3, 4, p. 7).
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Augustine as a young intellectual flirts briefly with radical skepticism but acknowledges God exists and Christ died on the cross. I quote, "I had become deafened by the clanking chain of my mortal condition, the penalty of my pride...I traveled much further away from you into more and more sterile things productive of unhappiness, proud in my self-pity, incapable of rest in my exhaustion” (Bk. 2,2, p.2).
Augustine is a good example of a Neo-Platonism they believed the intangible are everlasting and tangible forms are inferior and imperfect. Augustine becomes drawn by Manichaeism that was founded by Prophet Mani. Manichaeism believes darkness represents evil and light good religious believers of this sect believed there is always a fight between dark and evil. Manichaeism consisted of two groups, the elect who were thought to have reached spiritual perfection, hearers who had not attained spiritual perfection. Augustine mocks this belief in his book. I quote, "Otherwise their heart was empty of truth. They used to say „Truth, truth‟, and they had a lot to tell me about it, but there was never any truth in them (Bk.3, 6, p.10)".
Missions of Manichaeism spread rapidly due to very devoted missionary work hence Spreading through the Middle East and some Christians embraced it. Manichaeism renounced Old Testament saying it had so much violence and vengeance and some parts of the New Testament in the Bible though repeatedly banned it survived though to the 14th century in some parts of China and some religions like these reappeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. Augustine practiced this religion for ten years as a hearer.
Sin is an element Augustine focuses on too outlining his stand on sin issues. Augustine acknowledges we human beings are weak and there is no hope to overcome sin if we cannot receive divine intervention from God. I quote, ‘Where then is evil? What is its origin? How did it steal into the world? Where then does evil come from, if God made all things and, because he is good, made them good too?' (Bk. 7, 5, p. 138). He acknowledged the sinful nature of humanity even for the infants born and have not sinned. He avoided addressing when does human existence begin? This is due to his belief some things are beyond human understanding.
Augustine accepts he deserves the punishment he received in his lifetime because he was lazy and stupid and disobeyed the parents. I quote, “Yet sin is committed for the sake of all these things and others of this kind when, in consequence of an immoderate urge towards those things which are at the bottom end of the scale of good, we abandon the higher and supreme goods” (Bk. 2,5, p. 10).
The desire for wealth, education and fame are futile though he acknowledged education is good in itself.I quote, "But my sin was this, that I looked for pleasure, beauty, and truth not in him but myself and his other creatures, and the search led me instead to pain, confusion, and error." (Bk. I, 20, p. 40–41). Augustine believes forgiveness of sin is continuous in nature and says deferred baptism is not good as the mother Monica did to him in his childhood and sickness
Here Augustine becomes interested in the way Bishop Ambrose teaches and a new outlook is formed about scripture quote, "What wonderful profundity there is in your utterances! The surface meaning lies open before us and charms beginners. The depth is amazing, my God, the depth is amazed ing." (Bk.2, 5, p.4). I quote, "many difficult passages in the Old Testament Scriptures figuratively interpreted, where I, by taking them literally, had found them to kill [the deeper meaning g]" (Bk.5, 14, p.24). Reading helped them avoid to looking at scripture from the literal point of view. It ensured they had a deeper meaning of the scripture as he came to learn from Bishop Ambrose in Milan. This encounter happens when he leaves Rome because he dislikes the environment there.
The rule of St. Benedict is the foundation of most Christian monasticism today. Rulebook for monastic life was written around 530 AD. Countless monks and nuns have been influenced by this book. Benedict was a devout Italian Christian who had a chance to be a noble but chose to quit his studies and start a life of solitude. He was shocked of the immorality of the holy city. He founded his monastery in about 529 AD.
Life in these times was much more restricted than today. Benedict rule advocates for obedience for the abbot even the abbot though human had to subject his will to God. I quote, “The abbot ought ever to bear in mind what he is and what he is called; he ought to know that to whom more is entrusted, from him more is exacted.” (Benedict, 1948, Prologue).
Obedience to the abbot meant to stop monks from the extremists tendencies. Monastery was not to be viewed as a prison camp where offenders are highly punished but a loving community where they help each other on the chosen path to submit their life entirely to God.Benedict rule is created when Roman Empire has collapsed in the West and Europe was being overrun by barbarian tribes who were mostly pagans. Monasteries created during these time helped keep faith alive in the chaotic environment then. Monks spent their time reading ant kept the culture and theology alive for centuries when almost the entire continent was illiterate.
Obedience was a sign of humility and was highly regarded. Monks had to obey the abbot immediately when instructed to do something. Grumbling and complaints, delay, and hesitation were signs of disobedience, and such actions deserved punishment rather than reward. The silence was very important for each because before you ask a question, you must carefully evaluate it and present the question with all humility and respectful submission. I quote, "The Prophet shows that, for the sake of silence, we are to abstain even from the good talk. If this is so, how much more needful is it that we refrain from evil words, on account of the penalty of the sin!" (Benedict, 1948)
Monasteries were to welcome any visitors, and they were allowed to stay as long as they wish. If they had issues, then they can humbly raise them to the abbot not start to grumbling. Once a monk took all the steps of humility he will arrive at the love of God. “Let them prefer nothing whatever to Christ, and May he bring us all together to everlasting life.”(Benedict, 1948, Chapter 72) Every rule at this point he kept out of fear will occur naturally for him to do the right things without any effort. No longer will be the monk fear hell but will feel the love of God, and he would have been cleansed from the vice of sin. “We must know that God regards our purity of heart and tears of compunction, not our many words.” (Benedict, 1948, Chapter 20).
Monks engaged in reading, praying, manual labor. I quote, "Idleness is the enemy of the soul; and therefore the brethren ought to be employed in manual labor at certain times, at others, in devout reading." (Benedict, 1948, Prologue). They had to refrain from lazing around and disturbing others. Laziness was punishable. Also, service to man was a duty to help the poor. Manual labor ensured the monasteries had enough food and excess food was donated to the community. Monks had to lead a humble life having no property of their own or receiving gifts from anyone unless abbot grants permission.
Being a monk was a call that is divine in nature and St. Benedict believed these I quote, “What dear brothers, is more delightful than the voice of the Lord calling to us?” (Benedict, 1948. Prologue).
Early Christian life Monasticism develops from the realization that Christ's disciples left everything to follow Christ. St Antony comes into the realization that disciples of Jesus left everything for the sake of Christ. I quote, "communed with himself and reflected as he walked how the Apostles left all and followed the Savior; and how they in the Acts sold their possessions and brought and laid them at the Apostles' feet for distribution to the needy, and what and how great a hope was laid up for them in heaven" (Athanasius, 1998). By the fourth century, the first three stages were a complete paving way to the fourth development of monastic life.
The rule of St. Basil was clearly a principal source of that of St. Benedict, the father of Western monasticism. Earl Christianity set of rules for monastic life were set by St. Pachomius, St. Athanasius, St. Basil the Great and St. John Cassian as from hermitic life having an individualistic lifestyle, idiorhythmic life having hermitic individuals gather for common prayer and occasional meals and cenobitic life having communal sharing with normal people.
The rule of St. Basil was clearly a principal source of that of St. Benedict, the father of Western monasticism. The original guidelines were reviewed from time to time revised to fit into the context of given communities.
The first stage was called the ascetic life that was not very organized as much and was not separate from the church. Individuals engaged here were half monk and especially among the clergy in characteristic. The second stage the hermit life gave ascetics shaped and pushed it to include external world's separation drawing influence from Prophet Elijah and John the Baptist. Quarrelsomeness, intemperance, and opposition to the clergy brought them ill repute. This mode of life was formed by and embraced by Paul of Thebes and St. Antony.
Social impulse leads to the production of monastic congregations, then lead to monastic orders, unions too formed by a number of cloisters under one rule and a common government. Monasticism is expressed in Roman Catholic Church. German reformation derived influence from the last stage of the monks (Jerome, et. al . 1998). Luther belonged to the St. Augustine order and monastic discipline of Erfurt to him prepared him to evangelical freedom, as Mosaic Law of Israelites Paul is school master for Luther to lead him to Christ. "Amid the great offenses with which this world everywhere abounds, I may be comforted at times by thinking of your number, your pure affection, your holy conversation, and the abundant grace of God which is given to you so that you not only have renounced matrimony but have chosen to dwell with one accord in fellowship under the same roof, that you may have one soul and one heart in God" (Augustine, Letter 211). .These were the beginning of Protestantism.
The Chronicles of the crusaders show us the historical participation of kings and nobles and the pope himself in wars to aid in the capture of Jerusalem. This consists of two accounts representing journeys of crusaders. Majorly the focus is on the first and the fourth crusade. The fourth crusade will be my focus. Here the story is scripted objectively by a man who traveled and served the king for four years. His name is Joinville who was largely involved to make many decisions during these crusades. He is affected by heroic deeds of his family and decides to write about what happens during the crusades. He is one of the major characters in the story with little personal information.
Numerous diversions occur during this time as the army of the crusaders try to gain friends overseas and are lead away from Jerusalem and end up into the enemies' hands. Nobles involved show bravery, and they try to do service to their God and the country. Saint Louise is a king whose accounts of his life is well accounted for by Joinville. He was a friend and companion of the king.
The generosity, kindness, and wisdom draw a big concern for him Joinville who happens to be the king's close friend. He is privileged to serve the king for four years in the journey abroad. Joinville is not a Christian but is moved to become one. He gains knowledge that King Louise does not simply believe in teachings about God, he follows these teachings devotedly and consistently with totality in faith "it does not seem right and proper for a man to be so detached from his family." King Louise says (Joinville, 1963.Ibid., p. 313).
King Louise does help Jerusalem defend itself against the Turks and other enemies. Fortification of the castles is done, and the lands help them retain their lands. He and all his men experienced many challenges, but they were able to overcome “Great pity it was to hear the cry throughout the camp…they cried out like women laboring in childbirth…” (Joinville, 1963. Ibid, p. 344.). Upon the return home after many tribulations and trials, he uses those experiences to help transform his kingdom to embrace justice, peace and equality.
Gregory of Tours, history of the Franks covers the life of the life of Gregory from 538 to 594 AD. He lived on the frontier of barbarians. He grows up at Clermont which was the desire of Frankish kings. He was born to a father who owned an estate, and the land here was fertile. We see scanty details of his studies. He grew up in a pagan environment. Gregory devotes himself to write on miracles wrought by Saint Martin he shows the introduction of Christianity to Gaul. His family connections accord him unlimited opportunities.
Lombard’s of Italy at these times used to attack the churches and killing the bishops. "Wandered all over [Italy] for seven years, robbing the churches [and] killing the bishops" (Thorpe, 1974 at n. 1,236). Franks decided to attack the Lombard's, but Gregory seems not pleased of the counter attacks done.
He becomes involved religiously as a bishop and meddles in politics too. He is appointed the bishop of tours and travels, and he forms a personal relationship with four kings and with most of the leading Franks. He deals with political refugees seeking refuge in Saint Martin church.
Once Gregory was able to identify a false prophet whose language was not clear but he notes the language was vulgar. I quote, "He spoke the language of the common people; his accent was poor, and the words he used were vulgar. It was not easy to follow what he was trying to say"(Thorpe, 1974 at n. 1, 485)
This society believed in mystical healing by blessed bishop St. Martin like the removal of demons. He claimed if St. Martin drove away a demon from you then it must have been sent by the devil. The society of this time was marked with superstitions. Also, he speaks towards the end he speaks how difficult it reaches the level of a bishop and how the wealth has been transferred to the churches. Here he looked at bishops of the city as having taken his office as bishop and handed over to city bishops. I quote, "with masterly skill I have purged the city of Tours of the Arvernian rabble" (Thorpe, 1974.at n. 1, 321).
The apologia is a book about Socrates who is one among the greatest philosophers of the ancient times. Plato writes the defense that Socrates presents before the jury on account of having offended and embarrassed many people. He makes a defense for himself about his conduct and normally speaks and tells them he will speak the way he is used to speaking. This Behavior he claims stems from an oracle at Delphi who said he is the wisest man. He claims it is his duty to question those who claim to be wise and expose their false wisdom. I quote, "Whenever I succeed in disproving another person's claim to wisdom in a given subject, the bystanders assume that I know everything about that subject myself." (Bernard of C., 2010. Line 23a). Among the youths of Athens he gained admiration but anger and invokes hatred from people he embarrassed.
He interrogates Meletus, a man who is mainly the one who brought him to the jury. He claims the state can drift deep into sleep and become less productive hence he says he is performing a virtuous action. Jury finds him guilty but not to a large extent and asks the punishment he deserves, and he says a meal of honor jokingly and the letter says he is willing to pay a fine, but the jury rejects and gives him a death penalty instead since he refuses prison or being exiled. He accepts the verdict and notes that he needs not to fear the unknown and that is death. I quote, “Now it is the time that we were going, I to die and you to live; but which of us has the happier prospect is unknown to anyone but God."(Bernard of C., 2010. Line 42a)
The murder of Charles the good is a story that depicts how a king is murdered by several noblemen as he prays in the church of St. Donatian in Bruges. After these Erembald clan whose leader was Bertulf, most of the conspirators are killed months following the death of Charles the good. King Charles was famous for his goodness and kindness and the poor judged him to be upright as a prince. Garlberlt who is a cleric gives the account of what happens and says: I quote, "If anyone tries to criticize and disparage it, I do not care very much" (Bernard of C., 2010. p. 80).
Journey to the East is a story that mixes real characters and imaginary ones I quote, “He who travels far will often see things far removed from what he believed was Truth. When he talks about it in the fields at home, He is often accused of lying, for the obdurate people will not believe what they do not see and distinctly feel. Inexperience, I believe, Will give little credence to my song." (Hermann H., 1956 edition.). It set up in such a way that the writer tells us these was a journey of testing the faith of individuals. H.H is one of the members of these group, and he tries to remember and write these journey. This journey involved traveling in time and space in search for the ultimate truth also they travel in imaginary and real geographical areas.
A branch of these group travels to the east, and at first, the journey is full of fun and enjoyment but runs into a problem when at a deep mountain gorge called Morbio Inferiore one of them a servant disappears. He is called Leo but later he turns out to be the leader of the league that is a timeless religious group and no one knew these in the group. Also, they never got it why they were in disarray when Leo disappears, and they accuse him of taking some important things for the journey as they believed but later these objects reappear.
Later as H.H tries to recall the story he is not able to remember and all members of the group by then have disappeared except for Leo who does not even recall him, and he writes a passionate letter to Leo and post it at night, and Leo reappears the next morning at the narrator's house. I quote, “Everything becomes questionable as soon as I consider it closely, everything slips away and dissolves." (Hermann H., 1956 edition.). He tells him apparently that Morbio Inferiore was a test of faith and time spent adrift is some of his trials and if he passes any new test of faith and obedience he will be allowed into the League.
References
Augustine. & Pusey, E. (2008). The Confessions of St. Augustine. Waiheke Island: Floating Press.
Benedict & Doyle, L. J. (1948). St. Benedict's Rule for monasteries. Collegeville, Minn: The Liturgical Press.
Bernard of Clairvaux,(2010) Apologia (pdf)
Galbert of Bruges, (2005) Murder of Charles the Good, ch. 15-67 & 72-85
Gregory & Thorpe, L. (1974). The history of the Franks. Harmondsworth: Penguin
Odo of Deuil, (1956) Journey to the East (pdf)
Shaw,M. R, Villehardouin, G. Joinville J.(1963). Chronicle of the Crusades. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
White, C. Athanasius, Jerome, Severus S. & Gregory, (1998). Early Christian lives: Life of Antony by Athanasius, life of Paul of Thebes by Jerome, life of Hilarion by Jerome, life of Malchus by Jerome, life of Martin of Tours by Sulpicius Severus, life of Benedict by Gregory the Great. London, England: Penguin Books.
