Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources (CIKR) is a general term common in the United States in reference to the state assets important to the security of the nation, safety, public health, way of life and economic vitality. There are 16 such assets one of them being the chemical sector. The sector is responsible for the manufacture, storage, use and transportation of dangerous weapons capable of causing danger. They are, however very important to the country’s economy and other sectors. Therefore, there is a need to secure growth of the chemical industries, evolution, and distribution to prevent any potential threats. The following research highlights the policies applied in the chemical sector , its structure and function, regulatory instruments, changes in the post-9/11 era, its vulnerabilities and potential threat using Texas City ammonium nitrate explosion as an example.
Part I
Policies that direct and guide the sector
One of the sectorial policy is that manufacture of chemical weapons has to be done after a direct authority from the government (Krupp, 2004). Besides, it is the policy of the sector to ensure that no such chemicals manufactured are harmful to the population through organic pollution. The safety policy is also in line with the policies put in place through the international agreement. Thus, chemicals which are carcinogenic or which create severe health hazard should not be manufactured and distributed (Krupp, 2004). Besides, it is against the policy regulation to manufacture, use or distribute chemicals that pose hazardous effect to the environment- whether they are beneficial to the population or not. (Krupp, 2004). For instance, hazardous pesticides and/or industrial chemicals. It is also the policy of the sector to conduct appropriate due diligence and ensure sustainability to increase safety to the population. The policies are also put in place to prevent breach of both national and international regulations on safety concerning manufacture and use of chemicals.
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Structure and function
The sector is composed of several subsectors which includes: basic chemicals, specialty chemicals, agricultural chemicals, pharmaceuticals and consumer products. Basic chemicals exist in both organic and inorganic forms, pigments, dyes as well as plastic resins (Bewley & Magness, 2008). Specialty chemicals include: sealants, adhesives plastic additives, water treatment chemicals, coatings and catalyst (Bewley & Magness, 2008). Agricultural chemicals play important roles in the food processing industry as well as the in farm economy (Bewley & Magness, 2008). The pharmaceuticals involve prescription drugs, diagnostics, vitamins as well as the drugs available in over-the-counter- both for veterinary and human application (Bewley & Magness, 2008). Finally, the consumer products are important due to the production of detergents, soaps, cleaners, cosmetic and toiletries. This division into the various subsectors help in defining all the functions of the sector (Bewley & Magness, 2008). Other important structural components include: The Federal Programs and Associations and the industrial associations, for instance, The American Coating association (Bewley & Magness, 2008).
Regulatory instruments that determine the standards and procedures
The regulation governing the chemical sector are designed and enhanced by the regulatory authorities as well as the Executive Orders. For instance, The Executive Order 13650 is designed to improve security and safety of the facilities (Rest, 2016). The role of this policy is to direct the Federal Government in improving operational coordination with local and state partners and to improve the coordination of the Federal agency as well as sharing of information among others. The Department Of Homeland Security is used to develop regulatory instruments on standards concerning anti-terrorism with reference to chemical facilities and to develop an Ammonium Nitrate Security Program among other regulatory instruments. Other regulatory instruments under the department involve the SAFETY Act, Maritime Transportation Security Act and Rail Transportation Security (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2008). The department of Justice Authorities also develop regulatory instruments on Controlled Substance Act as well as the Federal Explosives Laws. Another policy is developed under the US Environments Protection Agency Authority which is responsible in developing laws and regulations for preparing, responding and preventing emergencies concerning the environment (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2008). It is also used in developing the Clean Water Act and the Chemical Safety Information, Site Security and Fuels Regulatory Relief Act which are important regulatory instruments under the sector (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2008). Other important authorities involve the Department of Transportation Authority, Department of Commerce Authority and the Department of State Authority which develop and enhance regulatory instruments in their respective areas (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2008).
Changes to sector regulation in the post-9/11 era
As if the airplane attack was not enough, the terror group followed a biological attack on several US areas after the 9/11 saga ( Philp, 2012 ) . The terrorists used a biological weapon in the form of anthrax- which left several people dead and a good number hospitalized. Poor response during the attack escalated the negative outcomes. As a result, the government decided to collect a group of federal agencies- the number of which is so high to cause a bureaucratic overlap in case of an emergency (Bewley & Magness, 2008). These agencies have a playbook in place in case of a chemical or a biological attack or outbreak. Billions of the Americans pounds have been spent on piling antidotes. In addition, the level of awareness has been heightened through the media as well as increased university programs on matters concerning chemical attacks. The spirit of the Americans has also been pushed a step higher especially after the September 12 response to the attack (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2008). Many people are more than willing to help in case of any alarm of outbreak. The government too is on high alert.
The study of chemistry in the US also gained momentum after the attack and this has been taking place to date. The US chemical sector enjoys competitive advantage over other parts of the world especially Asia, and Europe. The level of chemical production has also increased thus increasing the amount of revenue generated from the sector. This increases government attention which is increasing its attention towards the sector. Increased attention means better regulation and policies.
Vulnerabilities of the sector and its potential threats against chemical sector
The terrorists have shown increased interest in the attack of US chemical sector. Their main targets included the chemical plants. Three years following the 9/11 attack, the government increased physical protection to the chemical industries. However, after the three years, the security provisions were no longer sufficient to prevent any chemical attack. Despite the promises by the ruling president, G.W. Bush on an increased safety on chemical plants, no much effort was done to ensure safety of chemical storage and plant ( Philp, 2012 ). Any plea by the sector has not received the much needed attention from the security agencies. For instance, the Department of homeland Security ignored a security alert by the sector issued by Secretary Ridge on October 2002 ( Philp, 2012 ). Besides, the fact that the sector poured millions of cash on Bush campaign after promises on increased safety of the department and the fact that the sector lobbied heavily on development of safety and security measures indicate that the sector is vulnerable to potential attack ( Philp, 2012 ). Terrorist attack is the main threat that is faced by the sector since, any malfunction or disaster in a chemical industry is likely to affect a good number of unsuspecting civilians. This is because, most of the chemical industries in the United States are located in densely populated areas. Therefore, these companies pose serious threat to the population in case of any attack by terrorists of any other disaster- because it is likely to spill over to the population.
Part II
Texas City ammonium nitrate explosion and its impact
The first explosion happened in the sea when a French ship, SS Grandcamp, and halfway loaded with ammonium nitrate, caught fire ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ). Texas City was recognized for its mass production of ammonium nitrate- a product of the government for use in the WWII and as fertilizer ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ). However, rain delayed the cargo loading process. Little was known about ammonium nitrate ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ).Therefore, when fire broke on the basement of the ship, the ship officials responded by feeding steam into the base of the fire- he did not want to destroy the cargo by using water to kill the fire. However, based on the fact that ammonium nitrate produces its own oxygen, the resulting effect was a huge blast. The explosion was so loud that it broke windows 40 miles away and was felt 250 miles away ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ).
The blast killed all the 27 fire fighters who had responded to an emergency call ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ). Most of the crew members were not spared as well, especially those on board. More than a thousand buildings too were destroyed in addition to the nearby warehouses. Monsanto plant too was damaged (this resulted in the death of more than 145 workers in the plant) ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ) . Also, the explosion caused a tsunami that propelled ships within 15 foot radius ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ). Being the major port of the city and consisting many war ships belonging to the US government and used in WWII, some of the propelled ships caused some falling shrapnel to start fire in the nearby refineries. Two airplanes too were blasted out of the air. Other ships around were destroyed as well. The most noticeable one was The Flayer, which was also loaded with tons of ammonium nitrate. The explosion had propelled the ship to Wilson B. Keene ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ). However, attempts to pull it resulted in further explosions due to fire in the loaded cargo. Even if the survivors on board were already evacuated, the explosion caused additional fire outbreaks in the region. All the additional firefighter volunteers were killed in the aftermath of the incident. The death toll was so high that, a half destroyed public school within the area was used as a temporary morgue. A total of 581 people were killed with dozens suffering from deadly burns ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ).
Lessons
After the disastrous explosion, there were several legal cases against the government. Some people believed that the government had been negligent and that it should be held liable for the incident. More than 3000 cases were brought against the government which were appealed severally to the Supreme Court ( Gyenes & Dechy, 2016 ). This exempted the government from being held liable for the incident. The government however settled all the claims in 1955. On its part, the government took several measures that are important lessons on the safety and regulation of the chemical sector. For instance, new laws and regulations were enacted governing production, storage, transportation and handling of chemicals. The laws recommended use of specialized containers for the storage and shipping of ammonium nitrate. Besides, it was decided that it should not be stored near other reactive chemicals. The government also put in place research facilities through which additional research could be conducted on the use and application of various chemicals. The Environmental Protection Agency requested that ammonium nitrate be added to the list of most dangerous chemicals. As a result, companies should be extremely careful when handling such chemicals. These are important lessons that can be applied by the chemical industries to prevent such disasters from happening and in case they do, the response should be instantaneous and methodical to reduce effects of such accidents.
Recommendations
Many decades after the Texas City ammonium nitrate explosion disaster, USA is still struggling with chemical regulations. For instance, the chemical sector remain a high target by the terrorists who can exploit the vulnerable sector to cause harm to innocent civilians. However the following recommendations could facilitate effective handling of chemicals.
The government should come up with strict measures on production, use, shipping, storage and sale of chemical products to minimize the number of people accessing then.
Since the sector generates a lot of revenue to the government, the government should also put in place advanced disaster management response systems however the cost.
Civic education should be mandatory to ensure that people are enlightened on how to respond to chemical sector accidents.
Chemical industries should be located in sparsely populated areas or areas without the untrained professionals.
More research facilities should be put in place which can act as means for training as many people as possible.
The war on terror should be heightened from all angles especially entry points to ensure that they do not pose any threat to the civilians.
The government should have strict measure on the volume of chemicals produced and should keep track on use and distribution of produced chemicals.
Making international agreements with allies specifically about any impending threats to the US to ensure immediate response.
Emergency response procedures should be world-class to prevent secondary disasters from happening.
Developing backup emergency response which show flexibility and a methodical way of handling the same problem- secondary responses should be different from the primary one (but not at the expense of effectiveness).
Security measures should be enhanced in the chemical industry- increase the resources, both human or otherwise to the Department of Homeland Security in charge of chemicals- this will prevent terror attacks.
The war of disaster as caused by chemicals should not be made political but as a critical situation calling for immediate response from all sectors irrespective of the political affiliations.
Conclusion
Some of the activities undertaken by some sectors of any government are very critical and crucial at the same time. Therefore, in as much as the potential threat is high, the government cannot afford to prevent their production and use. Consequently, the only thing possible is to come up with policies that guide and regulate the use and application of such sectors. The chemical sector in US is a good example. The sector generates huge revenue to the government in addition to the vast array of benefits it has to the US citizens and others in the world. However, despite the efforts by the government to prevent chemical disasters from happening, some are inevitable and unexpected- thus not planned for. However, the government as well as the citizens should learn from such incidents to ensure that a repeat of the same does not happen. Besides, strict regulations should be put in place to keep track of any chemical produced within or entering the country.
References
Bewley, K., & Magness, V. (2008). The Impact of a Change in Regulation on Environmental Disclosure: SAB92 and the US Chemical Industry. Issues in Social & Environmental Accounting, 2(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.22164/isea.v2i1.25
Gyenes, Z., & Dechy, N. (2016). Risk and safety management of ammonium nitrate fertilizers: keeping the memory of disasters alive. Loss Prevention Bulletin, (251), 32–36. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=119379836&site=ehos t-live
Krupp, C. (2004). Antidumping Cases in the Us Chemical Industry: A Panel Data Approach. Journal of Industrial Economics, 42(3), 299. https://doi.org/10.2307/2950572
Philp, R. B. (2012). Environmental Issues for the Twenty-First Century and Their Impact on Human Health. Sharjah: Bentham Science Publishers. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=500589&site=ehost- live
REST, K. (2016). Chemical safety. Issues in Science & Technology, 33(1), 17–19. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN=118724176&site=ehost -live
Stanwick, P. A., & Stanwick, S. D. (2008). A Descriptive Analysis of Environmental
Disclosures: a Study of the Us Chemical Industry. Eco-Management & Auditing (Wiley), 5(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0925(199803)5:1<22::AID-EMA77>3.0.CO;2-W
