The concrete operational period of cognitive development represents the third stage along the Piaget's theory. The concrete-operational period usually spans the middle childhood stage regarding cognitive development. According to Buttelmann and Karbach (2017), this stage commences typically when a child is about seven years of age and continues when he or she is around eleven years of age. Besides, this period is usually characterized by logical thought development. For example, a child tends to search for twenty pennies upon spilling twenty of them stacked on her table because he or she understands that they were twenty pennies.
Formal-operational Period
The formal-operational period of cognitive development is a stage that commences at about eleven years of age during childhood and continues to adulthood. During this period of cognitive development children usually, develop their capabilities of thinking concerning abstract concepts. The formal-operational period is generally marked by the emergence of systematic planning, deductive reasoning, and logical thought (Kray & Ferdinand, 2013). For example, when a child is asked to imagine how he or she would use a third hand if he or she had one, the response given by the child such as using it to perform chores faster or perform many tasks at the same time demonstrate abstract and creative thinking.
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Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
The Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences indicates that there is a substantive limitation associated with traditional psychometric perspectives of intelligence. In this respect, people are equipped with different sorts of intelligence other than intellectual capacities. Some of these forms of knowledge possessed by people include linguistic, spatial-visual, interpersonal and musical. Whereas an individual may demonstrate considerable strength in areas such as linguistic intelligence, he or she may have a range of other capabilities (Kray & Ferdinand, 2013). For example, a person may be naturalistic intelligent as well as possessing musical and verbal abilities. In improving this theory, it would be prudent to add a narrow perspective that represents intelligence in humans supported by findings of empirical research.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
The Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory represents a categorization of intelligence into three aspects namely Practical (Contextual skills), Experimental (Creativity), and Componential (Analytical skills). Primarily, the Sternberg's Triarchic Theory focuses on the achievement of a synthesis of different theories of intelligence. The Triarchic Theory finds its basis on the previous componential reasoning approach developed by Sternberg. This theory suggests that intelligence should be translated to actual success if it is appropriately measured and defined. Improvement of this theory would require the addition of empirical research backings to support its claims such as the traditional IQ test being regarded as a measure for practical intelligence ( Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017).
Genetic/hereditary and environmental factors that influence intelligence
Genetic/Hereditary
Variation across genomes
Studies that are trying to examine the manner in which variations across genomes may affect intelligence have not been successful in obtaining a conclusive determination of specific genes that underlie differences in the levels of intelligence among people (Plomin & Deary, 2014). There is a higher likelihood that specific genes could contribute slightly to the level of intelligence of an individual.
The complex interaction of genes
The relationship between genetic characteristics and intelligence may be influenced through complex interactions involving several genes. Such interactions may also include the influence by the surrounding relating to the inherited genes. For instance, siblings who have grown together in the same surrounding are more likely to have higher similarities in their IQs than those adopted and raised in the same surrounding (Plomin & Deary, 2014).
Environmental
Sociocultural
The availability of adequate and appropriate resources and services within the sociocultural environment of an individual has a higher likelihood of influencing his or her intelligence positively. On the contrary, children who are not fortunate enough to have adequate resources during the development and learning are more likely to end up with lower levels of intelligence since they have less favorable sociocultural environments (Kray & Ferdinand, 2013).
Peer Group
The kind of peer group that a child identifies has a substantial role to play in influencing his or her intelligence. Findings from many longitudinal studies have supported the conjecture related to the ability of peer groups in significantly affecting scholastic performance and achievement (Plomin & Deary, 2014). However, few studies have succeeded in examining the role of peer groups on evaluations associated with cognitive ability.
Factors with the most Influence on Intelligence and Supporting Research
It is noteworthy that the environmental set of factors such as peer groups and sociocultural surrounding are linked to the most impact on intelligence as compared to the hereditary factors. In this respect, researchers are yet to establish a relationship between genetics and intelligence conclusively. Research has found that children who are subjected to favorable surroundings with the necessary resources and services are more likely to score higher on intelligence tests compared to those who fail to access such privileges ( Plomin & Deary, 2014).
Characteristics of the Gifted, Traditional, and Special Needs Children
Some of the standard features of gifted children include an unusual level of alertness even during infancy, ability to learn rapidly, an excellent memory coupled with advanced comprehension, development of a higher level of curiosity, and ability to raise probing questions among others. Traditional children are characterized by moderate sensitivity to issues happening around them, logical reasoning, normal reactions and feelings, and concern with social problems as well as being content with doing ordinary things. Characteristics of special needs children include facing unique challenges in life compared to their peers, being talented in different unique ways, and having protective instincts among others (Buttelmann & Karbach, 2017).
Pros and Cons of the Integrated Classroom
Integrated classrooms are beneficial in the sense that they provide opportunities for children with special needs such as autism to learn in environments characterized by standard classes. Besides, special needs students learning integrated classrooms can receive emotional and psychological support from peers who are regular students as well as from designated behavioral aids and special education teachers. The drawbacks of integrated classrooms include exerting unnecessary pressure on special needs students to keep up with typical peers in understanding the curriculum. There may also be difficulties in providing individual attention to students with special needs since attention from their teachers is often shared by their colleagues without special needs (Kray & Ferdinand, 2013).
References
Buttelmann, F., & Karbach, J. (2017). Development and Plasticity of Cognitive Flexibility in Early and Middle Childhood. Frontiers In Psychology , 8 . doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01040
Kray, J., & Ferdinand, N. (2013). How to Improve Cognitive Control in Development During Childhood: Potentials and Limits of Cognitive Interventions. Child Development Perspectives , 7 (2), 121-125. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12027
Plomin, R., & Deary, I. (2014). Genetics and intelligence differences: five special findings. Molecular Psychiatry , 20 (1), 98-108. doi: 10.1038/mp.2014.105
