Cognitive psychology is the study of mental and mind functioning, which entails memory, learning, perception, language, attention, decision making, and conceptual development. Furthermore, cognition is referred to as the process that the sensory input is reduced, transformed, elaborated, recovered, stored, and used. As individuals age, change is experienced in numerous ways. The variations happen both psychologically and biologically. Focusing on the aging brain that usually happens, there are also neurophysical and neuroanatomical variations. Considerable evidence shows that the alterations in brain structure and functioning are connected to cognitive functions. The difficulties seen in neural and cognitive functions making a link between the brain and the behavior difficult. This article looks into the cognitive domains, their declines, their variables, cognitive strength in normal aging, and theories explaining the cognitive strength in normal aging.
The Cognitive Functions
I Attention
Attention is defined as the ability to focus and choose an appropriate stimulus. It is also a cognitive process that enables individuals to set themselves towards a specific stimulus and subsequently react to it. Attention is an essential cognitive process and has numerous sub-processes that can function in different features of attentional processing (Glisky, 2007). Several forms of attention can be entailed in other cognitive domains with the exception of when task performance has turned to be involuntary or habitual. Different theorists and researchers have segregated various ways of describing attention, including selective attention, switching and divided attention, and sustained attention (Cadar, 2018). These divisions have been examined especially and considered in normal aging.
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Selective Attention
This cognitive process entails the capability to attend to some stimuli as paying no attention to others that are not essential at the time. For instance, a person may be at a party, and there are many conversations, music, the clinking of forks and plates, and a lot of other sounds, but still, the person focuses on a talk with a dining partner. In selective attention of given to specific essential elements of the environment. Some theories explain the selective attention cognitive process, which entails Broadbent's Filter, which states that an individual's ability to process information is limited considering capacity and selecting data to the process (Cadar, 2018). Treisman’s Attenuation theory states that attention function when using an attenuator detects a stimulus by its meaning or physical properties (Cadar, 2018). Therefore, the deficits found primarily on tasks can be linked to the general slowing of data processed by an older adult.
Switching and Divided attention
This cognitive process is related to decreasing performance, especially when tasks are complicated. This requires more than one task handled at a similar time (Cadar, 2018). The dividing attention is divided into a variety of performances when the tasks are separated. However, research explains that switching attention and dividing attention highly affect adults than young people (Glisky, 2007). Switching attention as a condition can be healed in several ways like aerobic exercise, practice, training that will be reduced.
Sustained Attention
Sustained attention is illustrated as the ability to maintain focus on a particular task over a prolonged period (Cadar, 2018). On the other hand, older adults are not ready and cannot be lessened on vigilance tasks.
II Working Memory
Working memory is a cognitive function that can be assumed as the primary source of the problems that come with age (Goldstein, 2007). This can be evident in several cognitive tasks, including decision-making, problem-solving, and long-term memory (Goldstein, 2007). Working memory is regularly used synonymously with short-term memory. However, some psychologists and theorists reflect that the two forms of memories are distinct. They suppose that the working memory permits the store's influence while the primary memory functions to store information in a shorter time (Cadar, 2018). Most of the theories that explain the psychology of cognitive concept with age are connected to working memory. Considering the divided attention complication with increased age, it is evident that the older adults have damages in working memory.
Several models have been suggested for the functioning of the working memory both cognitively and anatomically. They include the Multicomponent model of the working memory, which Baddeley and Hitch introduced. The theory contained three components: the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive (Goldstein, 2007). The central executive is the controller of sorts, directing information between the visuospatial and phonological components (Goldstein, 2007). However, recent research shows that the role of the central executive has been extended to shield a variety of executive control functions besides those connected to strictly working memory.
Three theories of cognitive aging have been expressed within the perspective of working memory complication. One of the theories suggests reducing attentional resources, the other emphasizes reducing the speed of processing information, and the other assigns complications to a failure of inhibitory control (Fisher et al., 2019). In attentional resources, it was suggested that limiting resources is attentional and reveals a lessening in mental energy. Errands that require high attention reveal complications, while tasks that require no attention or little attention are largely intact (Glisky, 2007). Working memory errands mainly involves divided attention and are likely to strain the inadequate resources of aged adults. For speed information, Salthouse proposed that processing speed might be considered a resource and that complication that results from age in working memory can be clarified generally by slowing of information processing (Fisher et al., 2019). Inhibitory control, Zacks, May, and Hasher suggested that deficiency in inhibitory control accounts for cognitive complications related to aging.
III Long-term Memory
Long-term memory is the cognitive domain that has experienced attention in normal aging. Many aged adults experience memory loss as they age. Long-term memory, which is not the same as working memory and short-term memory, involves retrieving information that is not present or maintained in an active state (Goldstein, 2007). The different kinds of long-term memory, such as episodic, semantic, autobiographical, procedural, implicit, and prospective memory, define the long-term memory, and each one can be affected by age. Memory elapses, which are mainly experienced by the aged adults, affect cognitive functions.
IV Perception
The variations between cognition and perception are not clear. More proposals suggest that the domains interact with top-down cognitive processes impacting perceptual and processing perception having an apparent effect on cognition (Cadar, 2018). Some proposals made by theorists suggest that degeneration may explain both cognitive and sensory complications. However, deterioration of perceptual and sensory abilities has an essential impact on the daily life of the aged adults.
High-level Cognitive Roles
Language and Speech
For older adults, language and speech are primarily intact in older adults under normal conditions, even though time processing will be deliberate than in young adults. Although older people are skilled conversationalists, they can also experience complications in processing an ongoing speech (Kelly et al., 2017). However, the older adults seem to uphold good levels of understanding by efficiently using circumstances to understand the message.
Decision Making
There is limited research on the impact of age and decision-making. However, working memory and attentional limitations can facilitate decision-making, but relevance, motivations, emotional investment, and previous knowledge aid in decision-making (Goldstein, 2007). Decision-making often seems to make precise demands on resource processing, but it can be reduced by the knowledge or capability of problem-solving domains.
Implications
On attention, older adults exhibit impairments on tasks that require more attention. The study shows that for good performance on tasks, relevant stimuli are needed. Therefore, tasks that adults show difficulties while handling them, are likely to be those that requires them to control their attention. The study indicates that attentional complications can significantly affect an older adult's aptitude to function sufficiently and self-reliantly in their daily life. Older adults show difficulties in tasks that comprise active reorganization, integration, or manipulation of the contents of working memory. The study is essential as it enables the understanding of various aspects that affect cognitive functioning with age, which impact the ineffective performance of tasks in the higher-level cognitive, which entails problem-solving, decision making, and behavior (Kelly et al., 2017). Theorists and psychologists, through their researches, have effectively contributed to the field hence enhancing knowledge and solutions on cognitive functioning. Which other solution includes medications and therapy.
Conclusion
Researches have descried that cognitive functions vary between individual and care caused by different things. Emotional and social wellbeing, just like lifestyle and therapy, is essential in maintaining cognitive functioning in older age: loneliness and Social connectedness influence older adult's cognitive function. Also, cognitive functions affected by age result in memory and attention. Therefore, human aging can high impact cognitive functions and cause complications.
References
Cadar, D. (2018). Cognitive Ageing. Geriatrics Health . 18-27. Doi: 10.5772/intechopen.79119
Fisher, G., Chacon, M. & Chaffee, D. (2019). Work across the Lifespan. Chapter 2 - Theories of Cognitive Aging and Work. 18-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812756-8.00002-5
Glisky, E.L. (2007). Changes in Cognitive Function in Human Aging. National Library of Medicine. Riddle DR. Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms. PMID: 21204355. https://www.ncbi.nih.gov/books/NBK3885 /
Goldstein, B. (2007). Cognitive Psychology. Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience . Ed.2, 101-150. ISBN-13: 978-0840033550
Kelly, M. Duff, H. & Loughery, D. (2017). The Impact of Social Networks, Social Support and Social Relationships on the Cognitive Functioning of Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review. Cognitive Health . 23-34.
