Question 1
Behavioral measure is where direct observation is done on an individual’s rate of behavior to a given stimulus. This can either be looking at their reaction time of duration of their behavior and thus, some other aspects of their behavior are observed and recorded. For example, the use of letter strings to determine their similarity or difference for instance the use of WAO and WAQ as stipulated by Kellogg (2016). Physiological measure is where the arousal and sensory reactivity of an individual provides scientists with given information. For instance, the investigator may continuously monitor the eye movement of their individual plus other changes occurring in their autonomic nervous system.
Such physiological processes may include their blood pressure, heart rate, hormone levels, and the flow of blood in the brain among many others. This helps in providing them with good results that lead to better achievement of clinical differential diagnosis ( Revelle, 2012 ). Both behavioral and physiological measures have the same features as they are attributed to an individual’s difficulties when it comes to their sensory processing. By this we mean that their entire sensory processing has been linked with an individual’s problems by looking at the way they live and do their daily activities and thus their adaptive behavior and participation comes into play.
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Question 2
Agnosia is a rare disorder that brings about the loss of recognition to certain places, faces and even voices plus objects. This rare disorder is mainly caused by damage of the brain along certain pathways that are mainly connected to the primary sensory areas of processing like the visual and auditory cortices. It is in these parts of the brain that an individual’s knowledge and information is stored ( Coslett, 2018 ). The other cause of Agnosia is where the brain’s parietal and temporal lobes are attacked by lesions such as encephalitis and even strokes. Poisoning of carbon monoxide, anoxia, and even dementia are conditions that tend to be causes of agnosia.
The main types of agnosia are visual, tactile and auditory. In the visual agnosia, we come to understand that is when there is damage to the brain to certain pathways known to connect the brain’s occipital lobe to the parietal and temporal lobes. For example, Alzheimer’s disease patients face difficulty in remembering he faces of people. This is evident in a 2014 article that discussed how those children affected by autism spectrum disorder have learned different ways of face recognition practices. Nonetheless, these individual face difficulties when it comes to understanding an individual’s identity and even emotional state (Xu & Tanaka, 2014). Auditory agnosia is also referred to as the pure word deafness where an individual is faced with the inability to process or even recognize sounds despite of them hearing. In this case, the A1 region of the brain that is known to process sound is mainly disconnected from the centers of language. However, the individual is able to speak, read and even write with this condition. Tactile agnosia is where an individual fails to recognize objects after touching them mostly brought about by the lesions in the person’s parietal lobe.
Question 3
Anterograde amnesia (AA) is where an individual is faced with an impaired capacity to learning new things. As such, it becomes difficult for the individual to remember events that occurred after the onset of amnesia (Kellogg, 2016). This brings about a disruption when it comes to the transferring of events to the individual’s long-term memory during the process of learning. Retrograde amnesia (RA) is where an individual faces loss of information acquired before amnesia starts. As such, the reflection is in forgetting from their long-term memory. Their relationship to the brain’s hippocampus is that this field prevents the learning of new event information and is why the deficit is present. Medically, when the hippocampus is activated bilaterally during the encoding of pictures in a normal individual’s long-term memory. As such, we can attest to the fact that the hippocampus aids in the storage of events in the brain’s long-term memory (Kellogg, 2016).
The hippocampus is important when it comes to the long-term memory consolidation because it binds together various places found in the neocortex; which is known to process different features of an existing new event like shape and color. From this, we can conclude that the hippocampus is important when it comes to the integration of the events features. It should also be noted that the events are each processed and stored in their respective different regions found in the neocortex. The binding aspect of the hippocampus is important because it helps individual’s remember objects no longer in their focus of attention. It is through such processes that features are able to compose the memory representation of objects. Sleep is viewed to play a vital role when it comes to the creation of new associations among the neocortical representations of semantic memory. It is during sleep that the neocortex features are widely activated as the inhibitory inputs found in the hippocampal region are suppressed (Kellogg, 2016).
Question 4
Long-Term Memory (LTM) is memory held upwards for durations above 30 seconds and is split into declarative and procedural memories (Kellogg, 2016). For declarative memories, they are explicit in nature since they can either be inspected or recalled when one is conscious. In this form of memory, they are further sub-categorized into semantic and episodic memories. Episodic memory is where an event can easily be reported from an individual’s life such as a visit to the zoo. This is further divided into autobiographical such as the birth or death of a loved one. The other is the experimental episodic memory. As for the procedural memories, they entail implicit forms of memories because one is not able to consciously recall. Semantic memory is also a ‘declarative’ memory, but in this case the facts of conscious recall are subject to facts that have meaning to an individual. An example is the listening of music through the ears (Sweatt, 2010).
Under the non-declarative memory category we have the implicit memory and implicit learning where the implicit memory represent the available knowledge to an individual, but he or she is unaware of its availability. On the other hand, implicit learning is where knowledge acquired is both unintentional and unconsciously obtained (Nelson et. al., 2012). In this category, non-declarative memory is also known as implicit memory since it is more expressed by means and not words for instance bike riding forces one to express their memories using motor skills.
Question 5
Prospective memory of task and processes starts with a decision that affects the future and ends with outcome evaluation of intention to be reached. The intended actions in question look at formation, encoding, execution and evaluation aspects (Crystal, 2013). As stated by McDaniel and Einstein, prospective memory is where an individual remembers to take action in future, at a specific time frame (2005). For instance, the action of picking up a child from school looks at a window of several minutes before the action is executed.
Prospective memory is important in the workplace as it helps an individual set goals and timelines of accomplishing given tasks that bring positive outcomes to their organizations. As such, prospective memory helps organization attain their future intended goals by setting time to perform certain actions that will promote the outstanding performance of their employees. This is because prospective memory is the ability of an individual to plan, retain and retrieve their planned intention. Intention is important because it is mostly based on the individual’s desires, values, goals and even their predicted consequences (Walters & Meier, 2014). Economically, prospective memory helps individuals in the workplace to structure their time and thus, leads them to obtaining autonomous lives. As mentioned by Dismukes, failures experienced in the workplace are related to the way individuals perform their tasks and how they interact with their normal cognitive processes (2012).
References
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Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Prospective memory: Multiple retrieval processes.
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Nelson, C. A., Thomas, K. M., & Haan, M. (2012). Neuroscience of cognitive development: The
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Xu, B. & Tanaka J. W. (2014). Teaching children with autism to recognize faces . In: Patel V.,
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